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[Emacs-diffs] trunk r115978: /etc cleanup
|
From: |
Eric S. Raymond |
|
Subject: |
[Emacs-diffs] trunk r115978: /etc cleanup |
|
Date: |
Sat, 11 Jan 2014 14:28:09 +0000 |
|
User-agent: |
Bazaar (2.6b2) |
------------------------------------------------------------
revno: 115978
revision-id: address@hidden
parent: address@hidden
committer: Eric S. Raymond <address@hidden>
branch nick: trunk
timestamp: Sat 2014-01-11 09:27:38 -0500
message:
/etc cleanup
* COOKIES, copying.paper, INTERVIEW, MAILINGLISTS, MOTIVATION,
publicsuffix.txt SERVICE: More deletions suggested by RMS.
removed:
etc/COOKIES cookies-20091113204419-o5vbwnq5f7feedwu-1471
etc/INTERVIEW interview-20091113204419-o5vbwnq5f7feedwu-1673
etc/MAILINGLISTS
mailinglists-20091113204419-o5vbwnq5f7feedwu-1675
etc/MOTIVATION motivation-20091113204419-o5vbwnq5f7feedwu-1676
etc/SERVICE service-20091113204419-o5vbwnq5f7feedwu-1680
etc/copying.paper
copying.paper-20091113204419-o5vbwnq5f7feedwu-1513
etc/publicsuffix.txt
publicsuffix.txt-20120410015519-bmjv73qe4k4x5wdx-1
modified:
ChangeLog changelog-20091113204419-o5vbwnq5f7feedwu-1538
etc/ChangeLog changelog-20091113204419-o5vbwnq5f7feedwu-1485
=== modified file 'ChangeLog'
--- a/ChangeLog 2014-01-11 14:15:17 +0000
+++ b/ChangeLog 2014-01-11 14:27:38 +0000
@@ -1,9 +1,3 @@
-2014-01-11 Eric S. Raymond <address@hidden>
-
- * celibacy.1, sex.6, condom.1, echo.msg: Deleted at RMS's
- suggestion. Not lost to posterity as they are part of the
- widely distributed funny-manpages collection.
-
2014-01-11 Fabrice Popineau <address@hidden>
* configure.ac: Read $srcdir/nt/mingw-cfg.site when $MSYSTEM is
=== removed file 'etc/COOKIES'
--- a/etc/COOKIES 2007-04-13 03:01:45 +0000
+++ b/etc/COOKIES 1970-01-01 00:00:00 +0000
@@ -1,157 +0,0 @@
-[Someone sent this in from California, and we decided to extend
-our campaign against information hoarding to recipes as well
-as software. (Recipes are the closest thing, not involving computers,
-to software.)
-
-The story appears to be a myth, according to the Chicago Tribune,
-which says that Mrs Fields Cookies hoards the information completely.
-Therefore, this recipe can be thought of as a compatible replacement.
-We have reports that the cookies it makes are pretty good.]
-
-Someone at PG&E called the Mrs. Fields Cookie office
-and requested the recipe for her cookies. They asked
-her for her charge card number, and she gave it to them
-thinking the cost would be $15 to $25. It turned out
-to be $200!
-
-Therefore, this person is giving the recipe to anyone
-and everyone she knows (and doesn't know) so that
-someone can get use of her $200. Anyway, just keep
-passing it on.
-
-Cream together: 2 cups butter
- 2 cups sugar
- 2 cups brown sugar
-
-Add: 4 eggs
- 2 tsp. vanilla
-
-Mix together in
-separate bowl: 4 cups flour
- 5 cups oatmeal (put small
- amounts of oatmeal in blender until it turns to
- powder. Measure out 5 cups of oatmeal and only
- "powderize" that, NOT 5 cups "powderized" oatmeal)
-
- 1 tsp salt
- 2 tsp baking powder
- 2 tsp baking soda
-
-Mix: All of the above
-
-Add: 24 oz. bag of chocolate chips and
- 1 finely grated 8 oz Hershey bar (plain)
-
-Add: 3 cups chopped nuts (any kind)
-
-Bake on greased cookie sheet (make golf ball sized balls) and
-bake about two inches apart. Bake at 350 degrees for 8 - 10
-minutes. DO NOT OVERBAKE. Makes 112.
-
-From: address@hidden (John R. Bane)
-Subject: Re: free cookie foundation?
-
-Hi! I "stole" your very expensive cookie recipe off the net. If you
-want to send me your SnailMail address, I'll be glad to send you a
-dollar (I would like to suggest this to the net, but I think there is
-some netiquette rule against asking for money - or is that only money
-for oneself?) to help defray the cost (it's not much, but if EVERYone
-who took the recipe sent you a dollar, it would help).
-
-Here also is another cookie recipe which I'm very fond of.
-
-Makes 6-8 dozen
-Bake at 375 degrees for ~10 min.
-
-Cream together:
-
-1 cup shortening (I use Weight Watcher's Reduced Calorie Margarine!)
-1/4 cup peanut butter (I recommend the non-sugared kind)
-1/2 cup sugar
-1/2 cup brown sugar
-2 eggs
-1 teaspoon vanilla
-
-Add:
-
-1/2 cup flour
-1 teaspoon soda
-1/2 teaspoon salt
-2 cups rolled oats (I use the 5-min variety)
-1-2 cups chocolate chips (I use 2 cups semi-sweet - ummmm!)
-1 cup nuts (I use pecan pieces - don't get them crushed, or the extra
- oil will make greasy cookies)
-1 cup shredded or flaked coconut
-
-(The nuts were listed as optional and I added the coconut myself, but
-I really love them there! You could also add things like m&m's, or
-raisins (I don't care for raisins in cookies, but you might). I've
-always wanted to try banana chips.)
-
-Mix well. Drop by teaspoonfuls on greased cookie sheet (I use pam).
-Bake at 375 degrees for approx. 10 min.
-
-My aunt found this recipe in an Amish book called something like
-"Eating Well When The Whole World Is Starving," and although I thought
-a cookie recipe was a bit odd for a book like that, they are about the
-healthiest a cookie is ever likely to get.
-
-They are also very easy to make (no blending, sifting, rolling, etc.)
-and extremely delicious. I get rave reviews and recipe requests whenever
-I make them.
-
- - rene
-
-Chocolate Chip Cookies - Glamorous, crunchy, rich with chocolate bits & nuts.
-
-Also known as "Toll House" Cookies ... from Kenneth and Ruth Wakefield's
-charming New England Toll House on the outskirts of Whitman, Massachusetts.
-These cookies were first introduced to American homemakers in 1939 through
-our series of radio talks on "Famous Foods From Famous Eating Places."
-
-Mix Thoroughly :
- 2/3 cup soft shortening ( part butter )
- 1/2 cup granulated sugar
- 1/2 cup brown sugar ( packed )
- 1 egg
- 1 tsp vanilla
-
-Sift together and stir in :
- 1-1/2 cups sifted flour (*)
- 1/2 tsp soda
- 1/2 tsp salt
-
-Stir in :
- 1/2 cup cut-up nuts
- 6 oz package of semi-sweet chocolate pieces ( about 1-1/4 cups )
-
-
-(*) for a softer, more rounded cookie, use 1-3/4 cups sifted flour.
-
-
-Drop rounded teaspoonfuls about 2" apart on ungreased baking sheet. Bake until
-delicately browned ... cookies should still be soft. Cool slightly before you
-remove them from the baking sheet.
-
-Temperature: 375 F. ( modern oven )
-Time: bake 8 - 10 minutes
-Amount: 4 - 5 dozen 2" cookies
-
-
-=====
-
-Personal comments :
-
-I find it tastes better with a mixture of shortening and butter, as they say.
-
-You don't need << all >> of that sugar, and it can be whatever color you want.
-
-The nuts are optional. Feel free to play with the recipe. I put oatmeal in it,
-reducing flour accordingly, and sometimes cinnamon.
-
-I also find it useful to grease the cookie sheets.
-
-I think I'm going to go bake some now ...
-
--- richard
-
=== modified file 'etc/ChangeLog'
--- a/etc/ChangeLog 2014-01-11 04:02:24 +0000
+++ b/etc/ChangeLog 2014-01-11 14:27:38 +0000
@@ -1,3 +1,11 @@
+2014-01-11 Eric S. Raymond <address@hidden>
+
+ * celibacy.1, sex.6, condom.1, echo.msg: Deleted at RMS's
+ suggestion. Not lost to posterity as they are part of the
+ widely distributed funny-manpages collection.
+ * COOKIES, copying.paper, INTERVIEW, MAILINGLISTS, MOTIVATION,
+ publicsuffix.txt SERVICE: More deletions suggested by RMS.
+
2014-01-10 Glenn Morris <address@hidden>
* ORDERS: Replace contents with pointer to emacs.info, mark obsolete.
=== removed file 'etc/INTERVIEW'
--- a/etc/INTERVIEW 2010-01-04 05:35:18 +0000
+++ b/etc/INTERVIEW 1970-01-01 00:00:00 +0000
@@ -1,442 +0,0 @@
-
- GNU'S NOT UNIX
-
- Conducted by David Betz and Jon Edwards
-
- Richard Stallman discusses his public-domain
- UNIX-compatible software system
- with BYTE editors
- (July 1986)
-
-Copyright (C) 1986 Richard Stallman. Permission is granted to make and
-distribute copies of this article as long as the copyright and this notice
-appear on all copies.
-
-Richard Stallman has undertaken probably the most ambitious free software
-development project to date, the GNU system. In his GNU Manifesto,
-published in the March 1985 issue of Dr. Dobb's Journal, Stallman described
-GNU as a "complete Unix-compatible software system which I am writing so
-that I can give it away free to everyone who can use it... Once GNU is
-written, everyone will be able to obtain good system software free, just
-like air." (GNU is an acronym for GNU's Not UNIX; the "G" is pronounced.)
-
- Stallman is widely known as the author of EMACS, a powerful text editor
-that he developed at the MIT Artificial Intelligence Laboratory. It is no
-coincidence that the first piece of software produced as part of the GNU
-project was a new implementation of EMACS. GNU EMACS has already achieved a
-reputation as one of the best implementations of EMACS currently available
-at any price.
-
-BYTE: We read your GNU Manifesto in the March 1985 issue of Dr. Dobb's.
-What has happened since? Was that really the beginning, and how have you
-progressed since then?
-
-Stallman: The publication in Dr. Dobb's wasn't the beginning of the
-project. I wrote the GNU Manifesto when I was getting ready to start the
-project, as a proposal to ask computer manufacturers for funding. They
-didn't want to get involved, and I decided that rather than spend my time
-trying to pursue funds, I ought to spend it writing code. The manifesto was
-published about a year and a half after I had written it, when I had barely
-begun distributing the GNU EMACS. Since that time, in addition to making
-GNU EMACS more complete and making it run on many more computers, I have
-nearly finished the optimizing C compiler and all the other software that
-is needed for running C programs. This includes a source-level debugger
-that has many features that the other source-level debuggers on UNIX don't
-have. For example, it has convenience variables within the debugger so you
-can save values, and it also has a history of all the values that you have
-printed out, making it tremendously easier to chase around list structures.
-
-BYTE: You have finished an editor that is now widely distributed and you
-are about to finish the compiler.
-
-Stallman: I expect that it will be finished this October.
-
-BYTE: What about the kernel?
-
-Stallman: I'm currently planning to start with the kernel that was written
-at MIT and was released to the public recently with the idea that I would
-use it. This kernel is called TRIX; it's based on remote procedure call. I
-still need to add compatibility for a lot of the features of UNIX which it
-doesn't have currently. I haven't started to work on that yet. I'm
-finishing the compiler before I go to work on the kernel. I am also going
-to have to rewrite the file system. I intend to make it failsafe just by
-having it write blocks in the proper order so that the disk structure is
-always consistent. Then I want to add version numbers. I have a complicated
-scheme to reconcile version numbers with the way people usually use UNIX.
-You have to be able to specify filenames without version numbers, but you
-also have to be able to specify them with explicit version numbers, and
-these both need to work with ordinary UNIX programs that have not been
-modified in any way to deal with the existence of this feature. I think I
-have a scheme for doing this, and only trying it will show me whether it
-really does the job.
-
-BYTE: Do you have a brief description you can give us as to how GNU as a
-system will be superior to other systems? We know that one of your goals is
-to produce something that is compatible with UNIX. But at least in the area
-of file systems you have already said that you are going to go beyond UNIX
-and produce something that is better.
-
-Stallman: The C compiler will produce better code and run faster. The
-debugger is better. With each piece I may or may not find a way to improve
-it. But there is no one answer to this question. To some extent I am
-getting the benefit of reimplementation, which makes many systems much
-better. To some extent it's because I have been in the field a long time
-and worked on many other systems. I therefore have many ideas to bring to
-bear. One way in which it will be better is that practically everything in
-the system will work on files of any size, on lines of any size, with any
-characters appearing in them. The UNIX system is very bad in that regard.
-It's not anything new as a principle of software engineering that you
-shouldn't have arbitrary limits. But it just was the standard practice in
-writing UNIX to put those in all the time, possibly just because they were
-writing it for a very small computer. The only limit in the GNU system is
-when your program runs out of memory because it tried to work on too much
-data and there is no place to keep it all.
-
-BYTE: And that isn't likely to be hit if you've got virtual memory. You may
-just take forever to come up with the solution.
-
-Stallman: Actually these limits tend to hit in a time long before you take
-forever to come up with the solution.
-
-BYTE: Can you say something about what types of machines and environments
-GNU EMACS in particular has been made to run under? It's now running on
-VAXes; has it migrated in any form to personal computers?
-
-Stallman: I'm not sure what you mean by personal computers. For example, is
-a Sun a personal computer? GNU EMACS requires at least a megabyte of
-available memory and preferably more. It is normally used on machines that
-have virtual memory. Except for various technical problems in a few C
-compilers, almost any machine with virtual memory and running a fairly
-recent version of UNIX will run GNU EMACS, and most of them currently do.
-
-BYTE: Has anyone tried to port it to Ataris or Macintoshes?
-
-Stallman: The Atari 1040ST still doesn't have quite enough memory. The next
-Atari machine, I expect, will run it. I also think that future Ataris will
-have some forms of memory mapping. Of course, I am not designing the
-software to run on the kinds of computers that are prevalent today. I knew
-when I started this project it was going to take a few years. I therefore
-decided that I didn't want to make a worse system by taking on the
-additional challenge of making it run in the currently constrained
-environment. So instead I decided I'm going to write it in the way that
-seems the most natural and best. I am confident that in a couple of years
-machines of sufficient size will be prevalent. In fact, increases in memory
-size are happening so fast it surprises me how slow most of the people are
-to put in virtual memory; I think it is totally essential.
-
-BYTE: I think people don't really view it as being necessary for
-single-user machines.
-
-Stallman: They don't understand that single user doesn't mean single
-program. Certainly for any UNIX-like system it's important to be able to
-run lots of different processes at the same time even if there is only one
-of you. You could run GNU EMACS on a nonvirtual-memory machine with enough
-memory, but you couldn't run the rest of the GNU system very well or a UNIX
-system very well.
-
-BYTE: How much of LISP is present in GNU EMACS? It occurred to me that it
-may be useful to use that as a tool for learning LISP.
-
-Stallman: You can certainly do that. GNU EMACS contains a complete,
-although not very powerful, LISP system. It's powerful enough for writing
-editor commands. It's not comparable with, say, a Common LISP System,
-something you could really use for system programming, but it has all the
-things that LISP needs to have.
-
-BYTE: Do you have any predictions about when you would be likely to
-distribute a workable environment in which, if we put it on our machines or
-workstations, we could actually get reasonable work done without using
-anything other than code that you distribute?
-
-Stallman: It's really hard to say. That could happen in a year, but of
-course it could take longer. It could also conceivably take less, but
-that's not too likely anymore. I think I'll have the compiler finished in a
-month or two. The only other large piece of work I really have to do is in
-the kernel. I first predicted GNU would take something like two years, but
-it has now been two and a half years and I'm still not finished. Part of
-the reason for the delay is that I spent a lot of time working on one
-compiler that turned out to be a dead end. I had to rewrite it completely.
-Another reason is that I spent so much time on GNU EMACS. I originally
-thought I wouldn't have to do that at all.
-
-BYTE: Tell us about your distribution scheme.
-
-Stallman: I don't put software or manuals in the public domain, and the
-reason is that I want to make sure that all the users get the freedom to
-share. I don't want anyone making an improved version of a program I wrote
-and distributing it as proprietary. I don't want that to ever be able to
-happen. I want to encourage the free improvements to these programs, and
-the best way to do that is to take away any temptation for a person to make
-improvements nonfree. Yes, a few of them will refrain from making
-improvements, but a lot of others will make the same improvements and
-they'll make them free.
-
-BYTE: And how do you go about guaranteeing that?
-
-Stallman: I do this by copyrighting the programs and putting on a notice
-giving people explicit permission to copy the programs and change them but
-only on the condition that they distribute under the same terms that I
-used, if at all. You don't have to distribute the changes you make to any
-of my programs--you can just do it for yourself, and you don't have to give
-it to anyone or tell anyone. But if you do give it to someone else, you
-have to do it under the same terms that I use.
-
-BYTE: Do you obtain any rights over the executable code derived from the C
-compiler?
-
-Stallman: The copyright law doesn't give me copyright on output from the
-compiler, so it doesn't give me a way to say anything about that, and in
-fact I don't try to. I don't sympathize with people developing proprietary
-products with any compiler, but it doesn't seem especially useful to try to
-stop them from developing them with this compiler, so I am not going to.
-
-BYTE: Do your restrictions apply if people take pieces of your code to
-produce other things as well?
-
-Stallman: Yes, if they incorporate with changes any sizable piece. If it
-were two lines of code, that's nothing; copyright doesn't apply to that.
-Essentially, I have chosen these conditions so that first there is a
-copyright, which is what all the software hoarders use to stop everybody
-from doing anything, and then I add a notice giving up part of those
-rights. So the conditions talk only about the things that copyright applies
-to. I don't believe that the reason you should obey these conditions is
-because of the law. The reason you should obey is because an upright person
-when he distributes software encourages other people to share it further.
-
-BYTE: In a sense you are enticing people into this mode of thinking by
-providing all of these interesting tools that they can use but only if they
-buy into your philosophy.
-
-Stallman: Yes. You could also see it as using the legal system that
-software hoarders have set up against them. I'm using it to protect the
-public from them.
-
-BYTE: Given that manufacturers haven't wanted to fund the project, who do
-you think will use the GNU system when it is done?
-
-Stallman: I have no idea, but it is not an important question. My purpose
-is to make it possible for people to reject the chains that come with
-proprietary software. I know that there are people who want to do that.
-Now, there may be others who don't care, but they are not my concern. I
-feel a bit sad for them and for the people that they influence. Right now a
-person who perceives the unpleasantness of the terms of proprietary
-software feels that he is stuck and has no alternative except not to use a
-computer. Well, I am going to give him a comfortable alternative.
- Other people may use the GNU system simply because it is technically
-superior. For example, my C compiler is producing about as good a code as I
-have seen from any C compiler. And GNU EMACS is generally regarded as being
-far superior to the commercial competition. And GNU EMACS was not funded by
-anyone either, but everyone is using it. I therefore think that many people
-will use the rest of the GNU system because of its technical advantages.
-But I would be doing a GNU system even if I didn't know how to make it
-technically better because I want it to be socially better. The GNU project
-is really a social project. It uses technical means to make a change in
-society.
-
-BYTE: Then it is fairly important to you that people adopt GNU. It is not
-just an academic exercise to produce this software to give it away to
-people. You hope it will change the way the software industry operates.
-
-Stallman: Yes. Some people say no one will ever use it because it doesn't
-have some attractive corporate logo on it, and other people say that they
-think it is tremendously important and everyone's going to want to use it.
-I have no way of knowing what is really going to happen. I don't know any
-other way to try to change the ugliness of the field that I find myself in,
-so this is what I have to do.
-
-BYTE: Can you address the implications? You obviously feel that this is an
-important political and social statement.
-
-Stallman: It is a change. I'm trying to change the way people approach
-knowledge and information in general. I think that to try to own knowledge,
-to try to control whether people are allowed to use it, or to try to stop
-other people from sharing it, is sabotage. It is an activity that benefits
-the person that does it at the cost of impoverishing all of society. One
-person gains one dollar by destroying two dollars' worth of wealth. I think
-a person with a conscience wouldn't do that sort of thing except perhaps if
-he would otherwise die. And of course the people who do this are fairly
-rich; I can only conclude that they are unscrupulous. I would like to see
-people get rewards for writing free software and for encouraging other
-people to use it. I don't want to see people get rewards for writing
-proprietary software because that is not really a contribution to society.
-The principle of capitalism is the idea that people manage to make money by
-producing things and thereby are encouraged to do what is useful,
-automatically, so to speak. But that doesn't work when it comes to owning
-knowledge. They are encouraged to do not really what's useful, and what
-really is useful is not encouraged. I think it is important to say that
-information is different from material objects like cars and loaves of
-bread because people can copy it and share it on their own and, if nobody
-attempts to stop them, they can change it and make it better for
-themselves. That is a useful thing for people to do. This isn't true of
-loaves of bread. If you have one loaf of bread and you want another, you
-can't just put your loaf of bread into a bread copier. you can't make
-another one except by going through all the steps that were used to make
-the first one. It therefore is irrelevant whether people are permitted to
-copy it--it's impossible.
- Books were printed only on printing presses until recently. It was
-possible to make a copy yourself by hand, but it wasn't practical because
-it took so much more work than using a printing press. And it produced
-something so much less attractive that, for all intents and purposes, you
-could act as if it were impossible to make books except by mass producing
-them. And therefore copyright didn't really take any freedom away from the
-reading public. There wasn't anything that a book purchaser could do that
-was forbidden by copyright.
- But this isn't true for computer programs. It's also not true for tape
-cassettes. It's partly false now for books, but it is still true that for
-most books it is more expensive and certainly a lot more work to Xerox them
-than to buy a copy, and the result is still less attractive. Right now we
-are in a period where the situation that made copyright harmless and
-acceptable is changing to a situation where copyright will become
-destructive and intolerable. So the people who are slandered as "pirates"
-are in fact the people who are trying to do something useful that they have
-been forbidden to do. The copyright laws are entirely designed to help
-people take complete control over the use of some information for their own
-good. But they aren't designed to help people who want to make sure that
-the information is accessible to the public and stop others from depriving
-the public. I think that the law should recognize a class of works that are
-owned by the public, which is different from public domain in the same
-sense that a public park is different from something found in a garbage
-can. It's not there for anybody to take away, it's there for everyone to
-use but for no one to impede. Anybody in the public who finds himself being
-deprived of the derivative work of something owned by the public should be
-able to sue about it.
-
-BYTE: But aren't pirates interested in getting copies of programs because
-they want to use those programs, not because they want to use that
-knowledge to produce something better?
-
-Stallman: I don't see that that's the important distinction. More people
-using a program means that the program contributes more to society. You
-have a loaf of bread that could be eaten either once or a million times.
-
-BYTE: Some users buy commercial software to obtain support. How does your
-distribution scheme provide support?
-
-Stallman: I suspect that those users are misled and are not thinking
-clearly. It is certainly useful to have support, but when they start
-thinking about how that has something to do with selling software or with
-the software being proprietary, at that point they are confusing
-themselves. There is no guarantee that proprietary software will receive
-good support. Simply because sellers say that they provide support, that
-doesn't mean it will be any good. And they may go out of business. In fact,
-people think that GNU EMACS has better support than commercial EMACSes. One
-of the reasons is that I'm probably a better hacker than the people who
-wrote the other EMACSes, but the other reason is that everyone has sources
-and there are so many people interested in figuring out how to do things
-with it that you don't have to get your support from me. Even just the free
-support that consists of my fixing bugs people report to me and
-incorporating that in the next release has given people a good level of
-support. You can always hire somebody to solve a problem for you, and when
-the software is free you have a competitive market for the support. You can
-hire anybody. I distribute a service list with EMACS, a list of people's
-names and phone numbers and what they charge to provide support.
-
-BYTE: Do you collect their bug fixes?
-
-Stallman: Well, they send them to me. I asked all the people who wanted to
-be listed to promise that they would never ask any of their customers to
-keep secret whatever they were told or any changes they were given to the
-GNU software as part of that support.
-
-BYTE: So you can't have people competing to provide support based on their
-knowing the solution to some problem that somebody else doesn't know.
-
-Stallman: No. They can compete based on their being clever and more likely
-to find the solution to your problem, or their already understanding more
-of the common problems, or knowing better how to explain to you what you
-should do. These are all ways they can compete. They can try to do better,
-but they cannot actively impede their competitors.
-
-BYTE: I suppose it's like buying a car. You're not forced to go back to the
-original manufacturer for support or continued maintenance.
-
-Stallman: Or buying a house--what would it be like if the only person who
-could ever fix problems with your house was the contractor who built it
-originally? That is the kind of imposition that's involved in proprietary
-software. People tell me about a problem that happens in UNIX. Because
-manufacturers sell improved versions of UNIX, they tend to collect fixes
-and not give them out except in binaries. The result is that the bugs don't
-really get fixed.
-
-BYTE: They're all duplicating effort trying to solve bugs independently.
-
-Stallman: Yes. Here is another point that helps put the problem of
-proprietary information in a social perspective. Think about the liability
-insurance crisis. In order to get any compensation from society, an injured
-person has to hire a lawyer and split the money with that lawyer. This is a
-stupid and inefficient way of helping out people who are victims of
-accidents. And consider all the time that people put into hustling to take
-business away from their competition. Think of the pens that are packaged
-in large cardboard packages that cost more than the pen--just to make sure
-that the pen isn't stolen. Wouldn't it be better if we just put free pens
-on every street corner? And think of all the toll booths that impede the
-flow of traffic. It's a gigantic social phenomenon. People find ways of
-getting money by impeding society. Once they can impede society, they can
-be paid to leave people alone. The waste inherent in owning information
-will become more and more important and will ultimately make the difference
-between the utopia in which nobody really has to work for a living because
-it's all done by robots and a world just like ours where everyone spends
-much time replicating what the next fellow is doing.
-
-BYTE: Like typing in copyright notices on the software.
-
-Stallman: More like policing everyone to make sure that they don't have
-forbidden copies of anything and duplicating all the work people have
-already done because it is proprietary.
-
-BYTE: A cynic might wonder how you earn your living.
-
-Stallman: From consulting. When I do consulting, I always reserve the right
-to give away what I wrote for the consulting job. Also, I could be making
-my living by mailing copies of the free software that I wrote and some that
-other people wrote. Lots of people send in $150 for GNU EMACS, but now this
-money goes to the Free Software Foundation that I started. The foundation
-doesn't pay me a salary because it would be a conflict of interest.
-Instead, it hires other people to work on GNU. As long as I can go on
-making a living by consulting I think that's the best way.
-
-BYTE: What is currently included in the official GNU distribution tape?
-
-Stallman: Right now the tape contains GNU EMACS (one version fits all
-computers); Bison, a program that replaces YACC; MIT Scheme, which is
-Professor Sussman's super-simplified dialect of LISP; and Hack, a
-dungeon-exploring game similar to Rogue.
-
-BYTE: Does the printed manual come with the tape as well?
-
-Stallman: No. Printed manuals cost $15 each or copy them yourself. Copy
-this interview and share it, too.
-
-BYTE: How can you get a copy of that?
-
-Stallman: Write to the Free Software Foundation, 675 Massachusetts Ave.,
-Cambridge, MA 02139.
-
-[As of April 2005, this address is:
- Free Software Foundation
- 51 Franklin Street, Fifth Floor
- Boston, MA 02110-1301, USA
- Voice: +1-617-542-5942
- Fax: +1-617-542-2652
-]
-
-BYTE: What are you going to do when you are done with the GNU system?
-
-Stallman: I'm not sure. Sometimes I think that what I'll go on to do is the
-same thing in other areas of software.
-
-BYTE: So this is just the first of a whole series of assaults on the
-software industry?
-
-Stallman: I hope so. But perhaps what I'll do is just live a life of ease
-working a little bit of the time just to live. I don't have to live
-expensively. The rest of the time I can find interesting people to hang
-around with or learn to do things that I don't know how to do.
-
-Editorial Note: BYTE holds the right to provide this interview on BIX but
-will not interfere with its distribution.
-
-Richard Stallman, 545 Technology Square, Room 703, Cambridge, MA 02139.
-Copyright (C) 1986 Richard Stallman. Permission is granted to make and
-distribute copies of this article as long as the copyright and this notice
-appear on all copies.
=== removed file 'etc/MAILINGLISTS'
--- a/etc/MAILINGLISTS 2014-01-10 03:08:13 +0000
+++ b/etc/MAILINGLISTS 1970-01-01 00:00:00 +0000
@@ -1,261 +0,0 @@
- GNU Project Electronic Mailing Lists and gnUSENET Newsgroups
- Last Updated 2006-06-03
-
- Please report improvements to: address@hidden
-
- See the end of this file for copyright notice and copying conditions
-
-* Mailing list archives
-
-The GNU mailing lists are archived at http://lists.gnu.org.
-
-* Some GNU mailing lists are also distributed as USENET news groups
-
-Certain GNU mailing lists are gated both ways with the gnu.all
-newsgroups at uunet. You can tell which they are, because the names
-correspond. For instance, bug-gnu-emacs corresponds to gnu.emacs.bug;
-info-gnu-emacs, to gnu.emacs.announce; help-gnu-emacs, to
-gnu.emacs.help; gnu-emacs-sources, to gnu.emacs.sources. Replacing
-`emacs' with some other program in those four examples shows you
-the whole pattern.
-
-* How to subscribe to and report bugs in mailing lists
-
-Send requests to be added or removed, to help-gnu-emacs-request (or
-info-gnu-request, bug-gdb-request, etc.), NOT to info-gnu-emacs (or
-info-gnu, etc.). Most <LIST_NAME>-request addresses are now handled
-automagically by GNU Mailman.
-
-If you need to report problems to a human, send mail to address@hidden
-explaining the problem.
-
-Many of the GNU mailing lists are very large and are received by many
-people.
-
-If a message you mail to a list is returned from a MAILER-DAEMON (often
-with the line:
- ----- Transcript of session follows -----
- don't resend the message to the list. All this return means is that
-your original message failed to reach a few addresses on the list. Such
-messages are NEVER a reason to resend a piece of mail a 2nd time. This
-just bothers all (less the few delivery failures (which will probably
-just fail again!)) of the readers of the list with a message they have
-already seen. It also wastes computer and network resources.
-
-It is appropriate to send these to the -request address for a list, and
-ask them to check the problem out.
-
-* Send Specific Requests for Information to: address@hidden
-
-Specific requests for information about obtaining GNU software, or GNU
-activities in Cambridge and elsewhere can be directed to:
- address@hidden
-
-* General Information about all lists
-
-Do not send very large files to mailing lists; instead put then on a web
-page and announce the URL. Good bug reports are short.
-See section '* General Information about bug-* lists and ...' for
-further details.
-
-The GNU mailing lists and newsgroups, like the GNU project itself, exist
-to promote the freedom to share software. So don't use these lists to
-promote or recommend non-free software or documentation, like
-proprietary books on GNU software. (Using them to post ordering
-information is the ultimate faux pas.) If there is no free program to
-do a certain task, then somebody should write one! Similarly, free
-documentation that is inadequate should be improved--a way in which
-non-programmers can make a valuable contribution. See also the article
-at <URL:http://www.gnu.org/philosophy/free-doc.html>.
-
-* General Information about info-* lists
-
-These lists and their newsgroups are meant for important announcements.
-Since the GNU project uses software development as a means for social
-change, the announcements may be technical or political.
-
-Most GNU projects info-* lists (and their corresponding gnu.*.announce
-newsgroups) are moderated to keep their content significant and
-relevant. If you have a bug to report, send it to the bug-* list. If
-you need help on something else and the help-* list exists, ask it.
-
-See section '* General Information about all lists'.
-
-* General Information about help-* lists
-
-These lists (and their newsgroups) exist for anyone to ask questions
-about the GNU software that the list deals with. The lists are read by
-people who are willing to take the time to help other users.
-
-When you answer the questions that people ask on the help-* lists, keep
-in mind that you shouldn't answer by promoting a proprietary program as
-a solution. The only real solutions are the ones all the readers can
-share.
-
-If a program crashes, or if you build it following the standard
-procedure on a system on which it is supposed to work and it does not
-work at all, or if an command does not behave as it is documented to
-behave, this is a bug. Don't send bug reports to a help-* list; mail
-them to the bug-* list instead.
-
-See section '* General Information about all lists'.
-
-* General Information about bug-* lists and reporting program bugs
-
-If you think something is a bug in a program, it might be one; or, it
-might be a misunderstanding or even a feature. Before beginning to
-report bugs, please read the section ``Reporting Bugs'' in
-the GNU Emacs reference manual (or node Bugs in Emacs's
-built-in Info system) for a discussion of how and when to send in bug
-reports. For GNU programs other than GNU Emacs, also consult their
-documentation for their bug reporting procedures. Always include the
-version number of the GNU program, as well as the operating system and
-machine the program was ran on (if the program doesn't have a version
-number, send the date of the latest entry in the file ChangeLog). For
-GNU Emacs bugs, type "M-x emacs-version". A debugger backtrace of any
-core dump can also be useful. Be careful to separate out hypothesis
-from fact! For bugs in GNU Emacs lisp, set variable debug-on-error to
-t, and re-enter the command(s) that cause the error message; Emacs will
-pop up a debug buffer if something is wrong; please include a copy of
-the buffer in your bug report. Please also try to make your bug report
-as short as possible; distill the problem to as few lines of code and/or
-input as possible. GNU maintainers give priority to the shortest, high
-quality bug reports.
-
-Please don't send in a patch without a test case to illustrate the
-problem the patch is supposed to fix. Sometimes the patches aren't
-correct or aren't the best way to do the job, and without a test case
-there is no way to debug an alternate fix.
-
-The purpose of reporting a bug is to enable the bug to be fixed for the
-sake of the whole community of users. You may or may not receive a
-response; the maintainers will send one if that helps them find or
-verify a fix. Most GNU maintainers are volunteers and all are
-overworked; they don't have time to help individuals and still fix the
-bugs and make the improvements that everyone wants. If you want help
-for yourself in particular, you may have to hire someone. The GNU
-project maintains a list of people providing such services. It is
-found at <URL:http://www.fsf.org/resources/service>.
-
-Anything addressed to the implementers and maintainers of a GNU program
-via a bug-* list, should NOT be sent to the corresponding info-* or
-help-* list.
-
-Please DON'T post your bug reports on the gnu.*.bug newsgroups! Mail
-them to address@hidden instead! At first sight, it seems to make no
-difference: anything sent to one will be propagated to the other; but:
- - if you post on the newsgroup, the information about how to
-reach you is lost in the message that goes on the mailing list. It
-can be very important to know how to reach you, if there is anything
-in the bug report that we don't understand;
- - bug reports reach the GNU maintainers quickest when they are
-sent to the bug-* mailing list submittal address;
- - mail is much more reliable then netnews; and
- - if the internet mailers can't get your bug report delivered,
-they almost always send you an error message, so you can find another
-way to get the bug report in. When netnews fails to get your message
-delivered to the maintainers, you'll never know about it and the
-maintainers will never see the bug report.
-
-And please DON'T post your GNU bug reports to comp.* or other gnu.*
-newsgroups, they never make it to the GNU maintainers at all. Please
-mail them to address@hidden instead!
-
-* Some special lists that don't fit the usual patterns of help-, bug- and info-
-
-** address@hidden to subscribe to info-gnu
-
-gnUSENET newsgroup: gnu.announce
-Send announcements to: address@hidden
-
-This list distributes progress reports on the GNU Project. It is also
-used by the GNU Project to ask people for various kinds of help. It is
-moderated and NOT for general discussion.
-
-** address@hidden to subscribe to gnu-misc-discuss
-
-gnUSENET newsgroup: gnu.misc.discuss
-Send contributions to: address@hidden
-
-This list is for serious discussion of free software, the GNU Project,
-the GNU Manifesto, and their implications. It's THE place for
-discussion that is not appropriate in the other GNU mailing lists and
-gnUSENET newsgroups.
-
-Flaming is out of place. Tit-for-tat is not welcome. Repetition
-should not occur.
-
-Good READING and writing are expected. Before posting, wait a while,
-cool off, and think.
-
-Don't use this group for complaints and bug reports about GNU software!
-The maintainers of the package you are using probably don't read this
-group; they won't see your complaint. Use the appropriate bug-reporting
-mailing list instead, so that people who can do something about the
-problem will see it. Likewise, use the help- list for technical
-questions.
-
-Don't trust pronouncements made on gnu-misc-discuss about what GNU is,
-what FSF position is, what the GNU General Public License is, etc.,
-unless they are made by someone you know is well connected with GNU and
-are sure the message is not forged.
-
-USENET and gnUSENET readers are expected to have read ALL the articles
-in news.announce.newusers before posting.
-
-Remember, "GNUs Not Unix" and "gnUSENET is Not USENET". We have
-higher standards!
-
-** address@hidden to subscribe to gnu-emacs-sources
-
-gnUSENET newsgroup: gnu.emacs.sources
-GNU Emacs source code to: address@hidden
-
-This list/newsgroup will be for the posting, by their authors, of Emacs
-Lisp and C sources and patches that improve GNU Emacs. Its contents
-will be reviewed by the FSF for inclusion in future releases of GNU
-Emacs.
-
-Please do NOT discuss or request source code here. Use
-help-gnu-emacs/gnu.emacs.help for those purposes. This allows the
-automatic archiving of sources posted to this list/newsgroup.
-
-Please do NOT post such sources to any other GNU mailing list (e.g
-help-gnu-emacs) or gnUSENET newsgroups (e.g. gnu.emacs.help). It's up
-to each poster to decide whether to cross-post to any non-gnUSENET
-newsgroup (e.g. comp.emacs).
-
-Please do NOT announce that you have posted source code to
-gnu.emacs.sources to any other GNU mailing list (e.g. help-gnu-emacs) or
-gnUSENET newsgroups (e.g. gnu.emacs.help). People who want to keep up
-with sources will read this list/newsgroup. It's up to each poster to
-decide whether to announce a gnu.emacs.sources article in any
-non-gnUSENET newsgroup (e.g. comp.emacs).
-
-If source or patches that were previously posted or a simple fix is
-requested in help-gnu-emacs, please mail it to the requester. Do NOT
-repost it. If you also want something that is requested, send mail to
-the requester asking him to forward it to you. This kind of traffic is
-best handled by e-mail, not by a broadcast medium that reaches millions
-of sites.
-
-If the requested source is very long, send mail offering to
-send it. This prevents the requester from getting many redundant copies
-and saves network bandwidth.
-
-Local variables:
-mode: outline
-fill-column: 72
-End:
-
-Copyright (C) 1999, 2001-2014 Free Software Foundation, Inc.
-
- Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining
- a copy of this file, to deal in the file without restriction, including
- without limitation the rights to use, copy, modify, merge, publish,
- distribute, sublicense, and/or sell copies of the file, and to
- permit persons to whom the file is furnished to do so, subject to
- the following condition:
-
- The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be
- included in all copies or substantial portions of the file.
=== removed file 'etc/MOTIVATION'
--- a/etc/MOTIVATION 2010-01-04 05:35:18 +0000
+++ b/etc/MOTIVATION 1970-01-01 00:00:00 +0000
@@ -1,179 +0,0 @@
-STUDIES FIND REWARD OFTEN NO MOTIVATOR
-
-Creativity and intrinsic interest diminish if task is done for gain
-
-By Alfie Kohn
-Special to the Boston Globe
-[reprinted with permission of the author
- from the Monday 19 January 1987 Boston Globe]
-
-Verbatim copying and distribution is permitted in any medium
-provided this notice is preserved.
-
-In the laboratory, rats get Rice Krispies. In the classroom the top
-students get A's, and in the factory or office the best workers get
-raises. It's an article of faith for most of us that rewards promote
-better performance.
-
-But a growing body of research suggests that this law is not nearly as
-ironclad as was once thought. Psychologists have been finding that
-rewards can lower performance levels, especially when the performance
-involves creativity.
-
-A related series of studies shows that intrinsic interest in a task -
-the sense that something is worth doing for its own sake - typically
-declines when someone is rewarded for doing it.
-
-If a reward - money, awards, praise, or winning a contest - comes to
-be seen as the reason one is engaging in an activity, that activity
-will be viewed as less enjoyable in its own right.
-
-With the exception of some behaviorists who doubt the very existence
-of intrinsic motivation, these conclusions are now widely accepted
-among psychologists. Taken together, they suggest we may unwittingly
-be squelching interest and discouraging innovation among workers,
-students and artists.
-
-The recognition that rewards can have counter-productive effects is
-based on a variety of studies, which have come up with such findings
-as these: Young children who are rewarded for drawing are less likely
-to draw on their own that are children who draw just for the fun of
-it. Teenagers offered rewards for playing word games enjoy the games
-less and do not do as well as those who play with no rewards.
-Employees who are praised for meeting a manager's expectations suffer
-a drop in motivation.
-
-Much of the research on creativity and motivation has been performed
-by Theresa Amabile, associate professor of psychology at Brandeis
-University. In a paper published early last year on her most recent
-study, she reported on experiments involving elementary school and
-college students. Both groups were asked to make "silly" collages.
-The young children were also asked to invent stories.
-
-The least-creative projects, as rated by several teachers, were done
-by those students who had contracted for rewards. "It may be that
-commissioned work will, in general, be less creative than work that is
-done out of pure interest," Amabile said.
-
-In 1985, Amabile asked 72 creative writers at Brandeis and at Boston
-University to write poetry. Some students then were given a list of
-extrinsic (external) reasons for writing, such as impressing teachers,
-making money and getting into graduate school, and were asked to think
-about their own writing with respect to these reasons. Others were
-given a list of intrinsic reasons: the enjoyment of playing with
-words, satisfaction from self-expression, and so forth. A third group
-was not given any list. All were then asked to do more writing.
-
-The results were clear. Students given the extrinsic reasons not only
-wrote less creatively than the others, as judged by 12 independent
-poets, but the quality of their work dropped significantly. Rewards,
-Amabile says, have this destructive effect primarily with creative
-tasks, including higher-level problem-solving. "The more complex the
-activity, the more it's hurt by extrinsic reward," she said.
-
-But other research shows that artists are by no means the only ones
-affected.
-
-In one study, girls in the fifth and sixth grades tutored younger
-children much less effectively if they were promised free movie
-tickets for teaching well. The study, by James Gabarino, now
-president of Chicago's Erikson Institute for Advanced Studies in Child
-Development, showed that tutors working for the reward took longer to
-communicate ideas, got frustrated more easily, and did a poorer job in
-the end than those who were not rewarded.
-
-Such findings call into question the widespread belief that money is
-an effective and even necessary way to motivate people. They also
-challenge the behaviorist assumption that any activity is more likely
-to occur if it is rewarded. Amabile says her research "definitely
-refutes the notion that creativity can be operantly conditioned."
-
-But Kenneth McGraw, associate professor of psychology at the
-University of Mississippi, cautions that this does not mean
-behaviorism itself has been invalidated. "The basic principles of
-reinforcement and rewards certainly work, but in a restricted context"
-- restricted, that is, to tasks that are not especially interesting.
-
-Researchers offer several explanations for their surprising findings
-about rewards and performance.
-
-First, rewards encourage people to focus narrowly on a task, to do it
-as quickly as possible and to take few risks. "If they feel that
-'this is something I have to get through to get the prize,' they're
-going to be less creative," Amabile said.
-
-Second, people come to see themselves as being controlled by the
-reward. They feel less autonomous, and this may interfere with
-performance. "To the extent one's experience of being
-self-determined is limited," said Richard Ryan, associate psychology
-professor at the University of Rochester, "one's creativity will be
-reduced as well."
-
-Finally, extrinsic rewards can erode intrinsic interest. People who
-see themselves as working for money, approval or competitive success
-find their tasks less pleasurable, and therefore do not do them as
-well.
-
-The last explanation reflects 15 years of work by Ryan's mentor at the
-University of Rochester, Edward Deci. In 1971, Deci showed that
-"money may work to buy off one's intrinsic motivation for an activity"
-on a long-term basis. Ten years later, Deci and his colleagues
-demonstrated that trying to best others has the same effect. Students
-who competed to solve a puzzle quickly were less likely than those who
-were not competing to keep working at it once the experiment was over.
-
-Control plays role
-
-There is general agreement, however, that not all rewards have the
-same effect. Offering a flat fee for participating in an experiment -
-similar to an hourly wage in the workplace - usually does not reduce
-intrinsic motivation. It is only when the rewards are based on
-performing a given task or doing a good job at it - analogous to
-piece-rate payment and bonuses, respectively - that the problem
-develops.
-
-The key, then, lies in how a reward is experienced. If we come to
-view ourselves as working to get something, we will no longer find
-that activity worth doing in its own right.
-
-There is an old joke that nicely illustrates the principle. An
-elderly man, harassed by the taunts of neighborhood children, finally
-devises a scheme. He offered to pay each child a dollar if they would
-all return Tuesday and yell their insults again. They did so eagerly
-and received the money, but he told them he could only pay 25 cents on
-Wednesday. When they returned, insulted him again and collected their
-quarters, he informed them that Thursday's rate would be just a penny.
-"Forget it," they said - and never taunted him again.
-
-Means to and end
-
-In a 1982 study, Stanford psychologist Mark L. Lepper showed that any
-task, no matter how enjoyable it once seemed, would be devalued if it
-were presented as a means rather than an end. He told a group of
-preschoolers they could not engage in one activity they liked until
-they first took part in another. Although they had enjoyed both
-activities equally, the children came to dislike the task that was a
-prerequisite for the other.
-
-It should not be surprising that when verbal feedback is experienced
-as controlling, the effect on motivation can be similar to that of
-payment. In a study of corporate employees, Ryan found that those who
-were told, "Good, you're doing as you /should/" were "significantly
-less intrinsically motivated than those who received feedback
-informationally."
-
-There's a difference, Ryan says, between saying, "I'm giving you this
-reward because I recognize the value of your work" and "You're getting
-this reward because you've lived up to my standards."
-
-A different but related set of problems exists in the case of
-creativity. Artists must make a living, of course, but Amabile
-emphasizes that "the negative impact on creativity of working for
-rewards can be minimized" by playing down the significance of these
-rewards and trying not to use them in a controlling way. Creative
-work, the research suggests, cannot be forced, but only allowed to
-happen.
-
-/Alfie Kohn, a Cambridge, MA writer, is the author of "No Contest: The
-Case Against Competition," recently published by Houghton Mifflin Co.,
-Boston, MA. ISBN 0-395-39387-6. /
=== removed file 'etc/SERVICE'
--- a/etc/SERVICE 2014-01-09 19:40:57 +0000
+++ b/etc/SERVICE 1970-01-01 00:00:00 +0000
@@ -1,11 +0,0 @@
-GNU Service Directory
----------------------
-
-Please see <http://www.fsf.org/resources/service/> for a list of
-people who have asked to be listed as offering support services for
-GNU software, including GNU Emacs, for a fee or in some cases at no
-charge.
-
-Note added January 2014:
-This file is obsolete and will be removed in future.
-Please update any links to use the above URL.
=== removed file 'etc/copying.paper'
--- a/etc/copying.paper 1999-10-03 12:39:42 +0000
+++ b/etc/copying.paper 1970-01-01 00:00:00 +0000
@@ -1,819 +0,0 @@
-(For more information about the GNU project and free software,
-look at the files `GNU', `COPYING', and `DISTRIB', in the same
-directory as this file.)
-
-
- Why Software Should Be Free
-
- by Richard Stallman
-
- (Version of April 24, 1992)
-
- Copyright (C) 1991, 1992, Free Software Foundation, Inc.
- Verbatim copying and redistribution is permitted
- without royalty; alteration is not permitted.
-
-Introduction
-************
-
- The existence of software inevitably raises the question of how
-decisions about its use should be made. For example, suppose one
-individual who has a copy of a program meets another who would like a
-copy. It is possible for them to copy the program; who should decide
-whether this is done? The individuals involved? Or another party,
-called the "owner"?
-
- Software developers typically consider these questions on the
-assumption that the criterion for the answer is to maximize developers'
-profits. The political power of business has led to the government
-adoption of both this criterion and the answer proposed by the
-developers: that the program has an owner, typically a corporation
-associated with its development.
-
- I would like to consider the same question using a different
-criterion: the prosperity and freedom of the public in general.
-
- This answer cannot be decided by current law--the law should conform
-to ethics, not the other way around. Nor does current practice decide
-this question, although it may suggest possible answers. The only way
-to judge is to see who is helped and who is hurt by recognizing owners
-of software, why, and how much. In other words, we should perform a
-cost-benefit analysis on behalf of society as a whole, taking account of
-individual freedom as well as production of material goods.
-
- In this essay, I will describe the effects of having owners, and show
-that the results are detrimental. My conclusion is that programmers
-have the duty to encourage others to share, redistribute, study and
-improve the software we write: in other words, to write "free"
-software.(1)
-
-How Owners Justify Their Power
-******************************
-
- Those who benefit from the current system where programs are property
-offer two arguments in support of their claims to own programs: the
-emotional argument and the economic argument.
-
- The emotional argument goes like this: "I put my sweat, my heart, my
-soul into this program. It comes from *me*, it's *mine*!"
-
- This argument does not require serious refutation. The feeling of
-attachment is one that programmers can cultivate when it suits them; it
-is not inevitable. Consider, for example, how willingly the same
-programmers usually sign over all rights to a large corporation for a
-salary; the emotional attachment mysteriously vanishes. By contrast,
-consider the great artists and artisans of medieval times, who didn't
-even sign their names to their work. To them, the name of the artist
-was not important. What mattered was that the work was done--and the
-purpose it would serve. This view prevailed for hundreds of years.
-
- The economic argument goes like this: "I want to get rich (usually
-described inaccurately as `making a living'), and if you don't allow me
-to get rich by programming, then I won't program. Everyone else is like
-me, so nobody will ever program. And then you'll be stuck with no
-programs at all!" This threat is usually veiled as friendly advice
-from the wise.
-
- I'll explain later why this threat is a bluff. First I want to
-address an implicit assumption that is more visible in another
-formulation of the argument.
-
- This formulation starts by comparing the social utility of a
-proprietary program with that of no program, and then concludes that
-proprietary software development is, on the whole, beneficial, and
-should be encouraged. The fallacy here is in comparing only two
-outcomes--proprietary software vs. no software--and assuming there are
-no other possibilities.
-
- Given a system of intellectual property, software development is
-usually linked with the existence of an owner who controls the
-software's use. As long as this linkage exists, we are often faced
-with the choice of proprietary software or none. However, this linkage
-is not inherent or inevitable; it is a consequence of the specific
-social/legal policy decision that we are questioning: the decision to
-have owners. To formulate the choice as between proprietary software
-vs. no software is begging the question.
-
-The Argument against Having Owners
-**********************************
-
- The question at hand is, "Should development of software be linked
-with having owners to restrict the use of it?"
-
- In order to decide this, we have to judge the effect on society of
-each of those two activities *independently*: the effect of developing
-the software (regardless of its terms of distribution), and the effect
-of restricting its use (assuming the software has been developed). If
-one of these activities is helpful and the other is harmful, we would be
-better off dropping the linkage and doing only the helpful one.
-
- To put it another way, if restricting the distribution of a program
-already developed is harmful to society overall, then an ethical
-software developer will reject the option of doing so.
-
- To determine the effect of restricting sharing, we need to compare
-the value to society of a restricted (i.e., proprietary) program with
-that of the same program, available to everyone. This means comparing
-two possible worlds.
-
- This analysis also addresses the simple counterargument sometimes
-made that "the benefit to the neighbor of giving him or her a copy of a
-program is cancelled by the harm done to the owner." This
-counterargument assumes that the harm and the benefit are equal in
-magnitude. The analysis involves comparing these magnitudes, and shows
-that the benefit is much greater.
-
- To elucidate this argument, let's apply it in another area: road
-construction.
-
- It would be possible to fund the construction of all roads with
-tolls. This would entail having toll booths at all street corners.
-Such a system would provide a great incentive to improve roads. It
-would also have the virtue of causing the users of any given road to
-pay for that road. However, a toll booth is an artificial obstruction
-to smooth driving--artificial, because it is not a consequence of how
-roads or cars work.
-
- Comparing free roads and toll roads by their usefulness, we find that
-(all else being equal) roads without toll booths are cheaper to
-construct, cheaper to run, safer, and more efficient to use.(2) In a
-poor country, tolls may make the roads unavailable to many citizens.
-The roads without toll booths thus offer more benefit to society at
-less cost; they are preferable for society. Therefore, society should
-choose to fund roads in another way, not by means of toll booths. Use
-of roads, once built, should be free.
-
- When the advocates of toll booths propose them as *merely* a way of
-raising funds, they distort the choice that is available. Toll booths
-do raise funds, but they do something else as well: in effect, they
-degrade the road. The toll road is not as good as the free road; giving
-us more or technically superior roads may not be an improvement if this
-means substituting toll roads for free roads.
-
- Of course, the construction of a free road does cost money, which the
-public must somehow pay. However, this does not imply the inevitability
-of toll booths. We who must in either case pay will get more value for
-our money by buying a free road.
-
- I am not saying that a toll road is worse than no road at all. That
-would be true if the toll were so great that hardly anyone used the
-road--but this is an unlikely policy for a toll collector. However, as
-long as the toll booths cause significant waste and inconvenience, it is
-better to raise the funds in a less obstructive fashion.
-
- To apply the same argument to software development, I will now show
-that having "toll booths" for useful software programs costs society
-dearly: it makes the programs more expensive to construct, more
-expensive to distribute, and less satisfying and efficient to use. It
-will follow that program construction should be encouraged in some other
-way. Then I will go on to explain other methods of encouraging and (to
-the extent actually necessary) funding software development.
-
-The Harm Done by Obstructing Software
-=====================================
-
- Consider for a moment that a program has been developed, and any
-necessary payments for its development have been made; now society must
-choose either to make it proprietary or allow free sharing and use.
-Assume that the existence of the program and its availability is a
-desirable thing.(3)
-
- Restrictions on the distribution and modification of the program
-cannot facilitate its use. They can only interfere. So the effect can
-only be negative. But how much? And what kind?
-
- Three different levels of material harm come from such obstruction:
-
- * Fewer people use the program.
-
- * None of the users can adapt or fix the program.
-
- * Other developers cannot learn from the program, or base new work
- on it.
-
- Each level of material harm has a concomitant form of psychosocial
-harm. This refers to the effect that people's decisions have on their
-subsequent feelings, attitudes and predispositions. These changes in
-people's ways of thinking will then have a further effect on their
-relationships with their fellow citizens, and can have material
-consequences.
-
- The three levels of material harm waste part of the value that the
-program could contribute, but they cannot reduce it to zero. If they
-waste nearly all the value of the program, then writing the program
-harms society by at most the effort that went into writing the program.
-Arguably a program that is profitable to sell must provide some net
-direct material benefit.
-
- However, taking account of the concomitant psychosocial harm, there
-is no limit to the harm that proprietary software development can do.
-
-Obstructing Use of Programs
-===========================
-
- The first level of harm impedes the simple use of a program. A copy
-of a program has nearly zero marginal cost (and you can pay this cost by
-doing the work yourself), so in a free market, it would have nearly zero
-price. A license fee is a significant disincentive to use the program.
-If a widely-useful program is proprietary, far fewer people will use it.
-
- It is easy to show that the total contribution of a program to
-society is reduced by assigning an owner to it. Each potential user of
-the program, faced with the need to pay to use it, may choose to pay,
-or may forego use of the program. When a user chooses to pay, this is a
-zero-sum transfer of wealth between two parties. But each time someone
-chooses to forego use of the program, this harms that person without
-benefiting anyone. The sum of negative numbers and zeros must be
-negative.
-
- But this does not reduce the amount of work it takes to *develop*
-the program. As a result, the efficiency of the whole process, in
-delivered user satisfaction per hour of work, is reduced.
-
- This reflects a crucial difference between copies of programs and
-cars, chairs, or sandwiches. There is no copying machine for material
-objects outside of science fiction. But programs are easy to copy;
-anyone can produce as many copies as are wanted, with very little
-effort. This isn't true for material objects because matter is
-conserved: each new copy has to be built from raw materials in the same
-way that the first copy was built.
-
- With material objects, a disincentive to use them makes sense,
-because fewer objects bought means less raw materials and work needed
-to make them. It's true that there is usually also a startup cost, a
-development cost, which is spread over the production run. But as long
-as the marginal cost of production is significant, adding a share of the
-development cost does not make a qualitative difference. And it does
-not require restrictions on the freedom of ordinary users.
-
- However, imposing a price on something that would otherwise be free
-is a qualitative change. A centrally-imposed fee for software
-distribution becomes a powerful disincentive.
-
- What's more, central production as now practiced is inefficient even
-as a means of delivering copies of software. This system involves
-enclosing physical disks or tapes in superfluous packaging, shipping
-large numbers of them around the world, and storing them for sale. This
-cost is presented as an expense of doing business; in truth, it is part
-of the waste caused by having owners.
-
-Damaging Social Cohesion
-========================
-
- Suppose that both you and your neighbor would find it useful to run a
-certain program. In ethical concern for your neighbor, you should feel
-that proper handling of the situation will enable both of you to use it.
-A proposal to permit only one of you to use the program, while
-restraining the other, is divisive; neither you nor your neighbor should
-find it acceptable.
-
- Signing a typical software license agreement means betraying your
-neighbor: "I promise to deprive my neighbor of this program so that I
-can have a copy for myself." People who make such choices feel
-internal psychological pressure to justify them, by downgrading the
-importance of helping one's neighbors--thus public spirit suffers.
-This is psychosocial harm associated with the material harm of
-discouraging use of the program.
-
- Many users unconsciously recognize the wrong of refusing to share, so
-they decide to ignore the licenses and laws, and share programs anyway.
-But they often feel guilty about doing so. They know that they must
-break the laws in order to be good neighbors, but they still consider
-the laws authoritative, and they conclude that being a good neighbor
-(which they are) is naughty or shameful. That is also a kind of
-psychosocial harm, but one can escape it by deciding that these licenses
-and laws have no moral force.
-
- Programmers also suffer psychosocial harm knowing that many users
-will not be allowed to use their work. This leads to an attitude of
-cynicism or denial. A programmer may describe enthusiastically the
-work that he finds technically exciting; then when asked, "Will I be
-permitted to use it?", his face falls, and he admits the answer is no.
-To avoid feeling discouraged, he either ignores this fact most of the
-time or adopts a cynical stance designed to minimize the importance of
-it.
-
- Since the age of Reagan, the greatest scarcity in the United States
-is not technical innovation, but rather the willingness to work together
-for the public good. It makes no sense to encourage the former at the
-expense of the latter.
-
-Obstructing Custom Adaptation of Programs
-=========================================
-
- The second level of material harm is the inability to adapt programs.
-The ease of modification of software is one of its great advantages over
-older technology. But most commercially available software isn't
-available for modification, even after you buy it. It's available for
-you to take it or leave it, as a black box--that is all.
-
- A program that you can run consists of a series of numbers whose
-meaning is obscure. No one, not even a good programmer, can easily
-change the numbers to make the program do something different.
-
- Programmers normally work with the "source code" for a program, which
-is written in a programming language such as Fortran or C. It uses
-names to designate the data being used and the parts of the program, and
-it represents operations with symbols such as `+' for addition and `-'
-for subtraction. It is designed to help programmers read and change
-programs. Here is an example; a program to calculate the distance
-between two points in a plane:
-
- float
- distance (p0, p1)
- struct point p0, p1;
- {
- float xdist = p1.x - p0.x;
- float ydist = p1.y - p0.y;
- return sqrt (xdist * xdist + ydist * ydist);
- }
-
- Here is the same program in executable form, on the computer I
-normally use:
-
- 1314258944 -232267772 -231844864 1634862
- 1411907592 -231844736 2159150 1420296208
- -234880989 -234879837 -234879966 -232295424
- 1644167167 -3214848 1090581031 1962942495
- 572518958 -803143692 1314803317
-
- Source code is useful (at least potentially) to every user of a
-program. But most users are not allowed to have copies of the source
-code. Usually the source code for a proprietary program is kept secret
-by the owner, lest anybody else learn something from it. Users receive
-only the files of incomprehensible numbers that the computer will
-execute. This means that only the program's owner can change the
-program.
-
- A friend once told me of working as a programmer in a bank for about
-six months, writing a program similar to something that was commercially
-available. She believed that if she could have gotten source code for
-that commercially available program, it could easily have been adapted
-to their needs. The bank was willing to pay for this, but was not
-permitted to--the source code was a secret. So she had to do six
-months of make-work, work that counts in the GNP but was actually waste.
-
- The MIT Artificial Intelligence lab (AI lab) received a graphics
-printer as a gift from Xerox around 1977. It was run by free software
-to which we added many convenient features. For example, the software
-would notify a user immediately on completion of a print job. Whenever
-the printer had trouble, such as a paper jam or running out of paper,
-the software would immediately notify all users who had print jobs
-queued. These features facilitated smooth operation.
-
- Later Xerox gave the AI lab a newer, faster printer, one of the first
-laser printers. It was driven by proprietary software that ran in a
-separate dedicated computer, so we couldn't add any of our favorite
-features. We could arrange to send a notification when a print job was
-sent to the dedicated computer, but not when the job was actually
-printed (and the delay was usually considerable). There was no way to
-find out when the job was actually printed; you could only guess. And
-no one was informed when there was a paper jam, so the printer often
-went for an hour without being fixed.
-
- The system programmers at the AI lab were capable of fixing such
-problems, probably as capable as the original authors of the program.
-Xerox was uninterested in fixing them, and chose to prevent us, so we
-were forced to accept the problems. They were never fixed.
-
- Most good programmers have experienced this frustration. The bank
-could afford to solve the problem by writing a new program from
-scratch, but a typical user, no matter how skilled, can only give up.
-
- Giving up causes psychosocial harm--to the spirit of self-reliance.
-It is demoralizing to live in a house that you cannot rearrange to suit
-your needs. It leads to resignation and discouragement, which can
-spread to affect other aspects of one's life. People who feel this way
-are unhappy and do not do good work.
-
- Imagine what it would be like if recipes were hoarded in the same
-fashion as software. You might say, "How do I change this recipe to
-take out the salt?", and the great chef would respond, "How dare you
-insult my recipe, the child of my brain and my palate, by trying to
-tamper with it? You don't have the judgment to change my recipe and
-make it work right!"
-
- "But my doctor says I'm not supposed to eat salt! What can I do?
-Will you take out the salt for me?"
-
- "I would be glad to do that; my fee is only $50,000." Since the
-owner has a monopoly on changes, the fee tends to be large. "However,
-right now I don't have time. I am busy with a commission to design a
-new recipe for ship's biscuit for the Navy Department. I might get
-around to you in about two years."
-
-Obstructing Software Development
-================================
-
- The third level of material harm affects software development.
-Software development used to be an evolutionary process, where a person
-would take an existing program and rewrite parts of it for one new
-feature, and then another person would rewrite parts to add another
-feature; in some cases, this continued over a period of twenty years.
-Meanwhile, parts of the program would be "cannibalized" to form the
-beginnings of other programs.
-
- The existence of owners prevents this kind of evolution, making it
-necessary to start from scratch when developing a program. It also
-prevents new practitioners from studying existing programs to learn
-useful techniques or even how large programs can be structured.
-
- Owners also obstruct education. I have met bright students in
-computer science who have never seen the source code of a large
-program. They may be good at writing small programs, but they can't
-begin to learn the different skills of writing large ones if they can't
-see how others have done it.
-
- In any intellectual field, one can reach greater heights by standing
-on the shoulders of others. But that is no longer generally allowed in
-the software field--you can only stand on the shoulders of the other
-people *in your own company*.
-
- The associated psychosocial harm affects the spirit of scientific
-cooperation, which used to be so strong that scientists would cooperate
-even when their countries were at war. In this spirit, Japanese
-oceanographers abandoning their lab on an island in the Pacific
-carefully preserved their work for the invading U.S. Marines, and left a
-note asking them to take good care of it.
-
- Conflict for profit has destroyed what international conflict spared.
-Nowadays scientists in many fields don't publish enough in their papers
-to enable others to replicate the experiment. They publish only enough
-to let readers marvel at how much they were able to do. This is
-certainly true in computer science, where the source code for the
-programs reported on is usually secret.
-
-It Does Not Matter How Sharing Is Restricted
-============================================
-
- I have been discussing the effects of preventing people from copying,
-changing and building on a program. I have not specified how this
-obstruction is carried out, because that doesn't affect the conclusion.
-Whether it is done by copy protection, or copyright, or licenses, or
-encryption, or ROM cards, or hardware serial numbers, if it *succeeds*
-in preventing use, it does harm.
-
- Users do consider some of these methods more obnoxious than others.
-I suggest that the methods most hated are those that accomplish their
-objective.
-
-Software Should be Free
-=======================
-
- I have shown how ownership of a program--the power to restrict
-changing or copying it--is obstructive. Its negative effects are
-widespread and important. It follows that society shouldn't have
-owners for programs.
-
- Another way to understand this is that what society needs is free
-software, and proprietary software is a poor substitute. Encouraging
-the substitute is not a rational way to get what we need.
-
- Vaclav Havel has advised us to "Work for something because it is
-good, not just because it stands a chance to succeed." A business
-making proprietary software stands a chance of success in its own narrow
-terms, but it is not what is good for society.
-
-Why People Will Develop Software
-********************************
-
- If we eliminate intellectual property as a means of encouraging
-people to develop software, at first less software will be developed,
-but that software will be more useful. It is not clear whether the
-overall delivered user satisfaction will be less; but if it is, or if
-we wish to increase it anyway, there are other ways to encourage
-development, just as there are ways besides toll booths to raise money
-for streets. Before I talk about how that can be done, first I want to
-question how much artificial encouragement is truly necessary.
-
-Programming is Fun
-==================
-
- There are some lines of work that few will enter except for money;
-road construction, for example. There are other fields of study and
-art in which there is little chance to become rich, which people enter
-for their fascination or their perceived value to society. Examples
-include mathematical logic, classical music, and archaeology; and
-political organizing among working people. People compete, more sadly
-than bitterly, for the few funded positions available, none of which is
-funded very well. They may even pay for the chance to work in the
-field, if they can afford to.
-
- Such a field can transform itself overnight if it begins to offer the
-possibility of getting rich. When one worker gets rich, others demand
-the same opportunity. Soon all may demand large sums of money for doing
-what they used to do for pleasure. When another couple of years go by,
-everyone connected with the field will deride the idea that work would
-be done in the field without large financial returns. They will advise
-social planners to ensure that these returns are possible, prescribing
-special privileges, powers and monopolies as necessary to do so.
-
- This change happened in the field of computer programming in the past
-decade. Fifteen years ago, there were articles on "computer
-addiction": users were "onlining" and had hundred-dollar-a-week habits.
-It was generally understood that people frequently loved programming
-enough to break up their marriages. Today, it is generally understood
-that no one would program except for a high rate of pay. People have
-forgotten what they knew fifteen years ago.
-
- When it is true at a given time that most people will work in a
-certain field only for high pay, it need not remain true. The dynamic
-of change can run in reverse, if society provides an impetus. If we
-take away the possibility of great wealth, then after a while, when the
-people have readjusted their attitudes, they will once again be eager
-to work in the field for the joy of accomplishment.
-
- The question, "How can we pay programmers?", becomes an easier
-question when we realize that it's not a matter of paying them a
-fortune. A mere living is easier to raise.
-
-Funding Free Software
-=====================
-
- Institutions that pay programmers do not have to be software houses.
-Many other institutions already exist which can do this.
-
- Hardware manufacturers find it essential to support software
-development even if they cannot control the use of the software. In
-1970, much of their software was free because they did not consider
-restricting it. Today, their increasing willingness to join
-consortiums shows their realization that owning the software is not
-what is really important for them.
-
- Universities conduct many programming projects. Today, they often
-sell the results, but in the 1970s, they did not. Is there any doubt
-that universities would develop free software if they were not allowed
-to sell software? These projects could be supported by the same
-government contracts and grants which now support proprietary software
-development.
-
- It is common today for university researchers to get grants to
-develop a system, develop it nearly to the point of completion and call
-that "finished", and then start companies where they really finish the
-project and make it usable. Sometimes they declare the unfinished
-version "free"; if they are thoroughly corrupt, they instead get an
-exclusive license from the university. This is not a secret; it is
-openly admitted by everyone concerned. Yet if the researchers were not
-exposed to the temptation to do these things, they would still do their
-research.
-
- Programmers writing free software can make their living by selling
-services related to the software. I have been hired to port the GNU C
-compiler to new hardware, and to make user-interface extensions to GNU
-Emacs. (I offer these improvements to the public once they are done.)
-I also teach classes for which I am paid.
-
- I am not alone in working this way; there is now a successful,
-growing corporation which does no other kind of work. Several other
-companies also provide commercial support for the free software of the
-GNU system. This is the beginning of the independent software support
-industry-an industry that could become quite large if free software
-becomes prevalent. It provides users with an option generally
-unavailable for proprietary software, except to the very wealthy.
-
- New institutions such as the Free Software Foundation can also fund
-programmers. Most of the foundation's funds come from users buying
-tapes through the mail. The software on the tapes is free, which means
-that every user has the freedom to copy it and change it, but many
-nonetheless pay to get copies. (Recall that "free software" refers to
-freedom, not to price.) Some users order tapes who already have a copy,
-as a way of making a contribution they feel we deserve. The Foundation
-also receives sizable donations from computer manufacturers.
-
- The Free Software Foundation is a charity, and its income is spent on
-hiring as many programmers as possible. If it had been set up as a
-business, distributing the same free software to the public for the same
-fee, it would now provide a very good living for its founder.
-
- Because the Foundation is a charity, programmers often work for the
-Foundation for half of what they could make elsewhere. They do this
-because we are free of bureaucracy, and because they feel satisfaction
-in knowing that their work will not be obstructed from use. Most of
-all, they do it because programming is fun. In addition, volunteers
-have written many useful programs for us. (Recently even technical
-writers have begun to volunteer.)
-
- This confirms that programming is among the most fascinating of all
-fields, along with music and art. We don't have to fear that no one
-will want to program.
-
-What Do Users Owe to Developers?
-================================
-
- There is a good reason for users of software to feel a moral
-obligation to contribute to its support. Developers of free software
-are contributing to the users' activities, and it is both fair and in
-the long term interest of the users to give them funds to continue.
-
- However, this does not apply to proprietary software developers,
-since obstructionism deserves a punishment rather than a reward.
-
- We thus have a paradox: the developer of useful software is entitled
-to the support of the users, but any attempt to turn this moral
-obligation into a requirement destroys the basis for the obligation. A
-developer can either deserve a reward or demand it, but not both.
-
- I believe that an ethical developer faced with this paradox must act
-so as to deserve the reward, but should also entreat the users for
-voluntary donations. Eventually the users will learn to support
-developers without coercion, just as they have learned to support public
-radio and television stations.
-
-What Is Software Productivity?
-******************************
-
- If software were free, there would still be programmers, but perhaps
-fewer of them. Would this be bad for society?
-
- Not necessarily. Today the advanced nations have fewer farmers than
-in 1900, but we do not think this is bad for society, because the few
-deliver more food to the consumers than the many used to do. We call
-this improved productivity. Free software would require far fewer
-programmers to satisfy the demand, because of increased software
-productivity at all levels:
-
- * Wider use of each program that is developed.
-
- * The ability to adapt existing programs for customization instead
- of starting from scratch.
-
- * Better education of programmers.
-
- * The elimination of duplicate development effort.
-
- Those who object to cooperation because it would result in the
-employment of fewer programmers, are actually objecting to increased
-productivity. Yet these people usually accept the widely-held belief
-that the software industry needs increased productivity. How is this?
-
- "Software productivity" can mean two different things: the overall
-productivity of all software development, or the productivity of
-individual projects. Overall productivity is what society would like to
-improve, and the most straightforward way to do this is to eliminate the
-artificial obstacles to cooperation which reduce it. But researchers
-who study the field of "software productivity" focus only on the
-second, limited, sense of the term, where improvement requires difficult
-technological advances.
-
-Is Competition Inevitable?
-**************************
-
- Is it inevitable that people will try to compete, to surpass their
-rivals in society? Perhaps it is. But competition itself is not
-harmful; the harmful thing is *combat*.
-
- There are many ways to compete. Competition can consist of trying to
-achieve ever more, to outdo what others have done. For example, in the
-old days, there was competition among programming wizards--competition
-for who could make the computer do the most amazing thing, or for who
-could make the shortest or fastest program for a given task. This kind
-of competition can benefit everyone, *as long as* the spirit of good
-sportsmanship is maintained.
-
- Constructive competition is enough competition to motivate people to
-great efforts. A number of people are competing to be the first to have
-visited all the countries on Earth; some even spend fortunes trying to
-do this. But they do not bribe ship captains to strand their rivals on
-desert islands. They are content to let the best person win.
-
- Competition becomes combat when the competitors begin trying to
-impede each other instead of advancing themselves--when "Let the best
-person win" gives way to "Let me win, best or not." Proprietary
-software is harmful, not because it is a form of competition, but
-because it is a form of combat among the citizens of our society.
-
- Competition in business is not necessarily combat. For example, when
-two grocery stores compete, their entire effort is to improve their own
-operations, not to sabotage the rival. But this does not demonstrate a
-special commitment to business ethics; rather, there is little scope for
-combat in this line of business short of physical violence. Not all
-areas of business share this characteristic. Withholding information
-that could help everyone advance is a form of combat.
-
- Business ideology does not prepare people to resist the temptation to
-combat the competition. Some forms of combat have been made banned with
-anti-trust laws, truth in advertising laws, and so on, but rather than
-generalizing this to a principled rejection of combat in general,
-executives invent other forms of combat which are not specifically
-prohibited. Society's resources are squandered on the economic
-equivalent of factional civil war.
-
-"Why Don't You Move to Russia?"
-*******************************
-
- In the United States, any advocate of other than the most extreme
-form of laissez-faire selfishness has often heard this accusation. For
-example, it is leveled against the supporters of a national health care
-system, such as is found in all the other industrialized nations of the
-free world. It is leveled against the advocates of public support for
-the arts, also universal in advanced nations. The idea that citizens
-have any obligation to the public good is identified in America with
-Communism. But how similar are these ideas?
-
- Communism as was practiced in the Soviet Union was a system of
-central control where all activity was regimented, supposedly for the
-common good, but actually for the sake of the members of the Communist
-party. And where copying equipment was closely guarded to prevent
-illegal copying.
-
- The American system of intellectual property exercises central
-control over distribution of a program, and guards copying equipment
-with automatic copying protection schemes to prevent illegal copying.
-
- By contrast, I am working to build a system where people are free to
-decide their own actions; in particular, free to help their neighbors,
-and free to alter and improve the tools which they use in their daily
-lives. A system based on voluntary cooperation, and decentralization.
-
- Thus, if we are to judge views by their resemblance to Russian
-Communism, it is the software owners who are the Communists.
-
-The Question of Premises
-************************
-
- I make the assumption in this paper that a user of software is no
-less important than an author, or even an author's employer. In other
-words, their interests and needs have equal weight, when we decide
-which course of action is best.
-
- This premise is not universally accepted. Many maintain that an
-author's employer is fundamentally more important than anyone else.
-They say, for example, that the purpose of having owners of software is
-to give the author's employer the advantage he deserves--regardless of
-how this may affect the public.
-
- It is no use trying to prove or disprove these premises. Proof
-requires shared premises. So most of what I have to say is addressed
-only to those who share the premises I use, or at least are interested
-in what their consequences are. For those who believe that the owners
-are more important than everyone else, this paper is simply irrelevant.
-
- But why would a large number of Americans accept a premise which
-elevates certain people in importance above everyone else? Partly
-because of the belief that this premise is part of the legal traditions
-of American society. Some people feel that doubting the premise means
-challenging the basis of society.
-
- It is important for these people to know that this premise is not
-part of our legal tradition. It never has been.
-
- Thus, the Constitution says that the purpose of copyright is to
-"promote the progress of science and the useful arts." The Supreme
-Court has elaborated on this, stating in `Fox Film vs. Doyal' that "The
-sole interest of the United States and the primary object in conferring
-the [copyright] monopoly lie in the general benefits derived by the
-public from the labors of authors."
-
- We are not required to agree with the Constitution or the Supreme
-Court. (At one time, they both condoned slavery.) So their positions
-do not disprove the owner supremacy premise. But I hope that the
-awareness that this is a radical right-wing assumption rather than a
-traditionally recognized one will weaken its appeal.
-
-Conclusion
-**********
-
- We like to think that our society encourages helping your neighbor;
-but each time we reward someone for obstructionism, or admire them for
-the wealth they have gained in this way, we are sending the opposite
-message.
-
- Software hoarding is one form of our general willingness to disregard
-the welfare of society for personal gain. We can trace this disregard
-from Ronald Reagan to Jim Bakker, from Ivan Boesky to Exxon, from
-failing banks to failing schools. We can measure it with the size of
-the homeless population and the prison population. The antisocial
-spirit feeds on itself, because the more we see that other people will
-not help us, the more it seems futile to help them. Thus society decays
-into a jungle.
-
- If we don't want to live in a jungle, we must change our attitudes.
-We must start sending the message that a good citizen is one who
-cooperates when appropriate, not one who is successful at taking from
-others. I hope that the free software movement will contribute to
-this: at least in one area, we will replace the jungle with a more
-efficient system which encourages and runs on voluntary cooperation.
-
- ---------- Footnotes ----------
-
- (1) The word "free" in "free software" refers to freedom, not to
-price; the price paid for a copy of a free program may be zero, or
-small, or (rarely) quite large.
-
- (2) The issues of pollution and traffic congestion do not alter
-this conclusion. If we wish to make driving more expensive to
-discourage driving in general, it is disadvantageous to do this using
-toll booths, which contribute to both pollution and congestion. A tax
-on gasoline is much better. Likewise, a desire to enhance safety by
-limiting maximum speed is not relevant; a free access road enhances the
-average speed by avoiding stops and delays, for any given speed limit.
-
- (3) One might regard a particular computer program as a harmful
-thing that should not be available at all, like the Lotus Marketplace
-database of personal information, which was withdrawn from sale due to
-public disapproval. Most of what I say does not apply to this case,
-but it makes little sense to argue for having an owner on the grounds
-that the owner will make the program less available. The owner will
-not make it *completely* unavailable, as one would wish in the case of
-a program whose use is considered destructive.
-
=== removed file 'etc/publicsuffix.txt'
--- a/etc/publicsuffix.txt 2012-04-14 05:10:55 +0000
+++ b/etc/publicsuffix.txt 1970-01-01 00:00:00 +0000
@@ -1,5189 +0,0 @@
-// ***** BEGIN LICENSE BLOCK *****
-// Version: MPL 1.1/GPL 2.0/LGPL 2.1
-//
-// The contents of this file are subject to the Mozilla Public License Version
-// 1.1 (the "License"); you may not use this file except in compliance with
-// the License. You may obtain a copy of the License at
-// http://www.mozilla.org/MPL/
-//
-// Software distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" basis,
-// WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, either express or implied. See the License
-// for the specific language governing rights and limitations under the
-// License.
-//
-// The Original Code is the Public Suffix List.
-//
-// The Initial Developer of the Original Code is
-// Jo Hermans <address@hidden>.
-// Portions created by the Initial Developer are Copyright (C) 2007
-// the Initial Developer. All Rights Reserved.
-//
-// Contributor(s):
-// Ruben Arakelyan <address@hidden>
-// Gervase Markham <address@hidden>
-// Pamela Greene <address@hidden>
-// David Triendl <address@hidden>
-// Jothan Frakes <address@hidden>
-// The kind representatives of many TLD registries
-//
-// Alternatively, the contents of this file may be used under the terms of
-// either the GNU General Public License Version 2 or later (the "GPL"), or
-// the GNU Lesser General Public License Version 2.1 or later (the "LGPL"),
-// in which case the provisions of the GPL or the LGPL are applicable instead
-// of those above. If you wish to allow use of your version of this file only
-// under the terms of either the GPL or the LGPL, and not to allow others to
-// use your version of this file under the terms of the MPL, indicate your
-// decision by deleting the provisions above and replace them with the notice
-// and other provisions required by the GPL or the LGPL. If you do not delete
-// the provisions above, a recipient may use your version of this file under
-// the terms of any one of the MPL, the GPL or the LGPL.
-//
-// ***** END LICENSE BLOCK *****
-
-// ac : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.ac
-ac
-com.ac
-edu.ac
-gov.ac
-net.ac
-mil.ac
-org.ac
-
-// ad : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.ad
-ad
-nom.ad
-
-// ae : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.ae
-// see also: "Domain Name Eligibility Policy" at
http://www.aeda.ae/eng/aepolicy.php
-ae
-co.ae
-net.ae
-org.ae
-sch.ae
-ac.ae
-gov.ae
-mil.ae
-
-// aero : see http://www.information.aero/index.php?id=66
-aero
-accident-investigation.aero
-accident-prevention.aero
-aerobatic.aero
-aeroclub.aero
-aerodrome.aero
-agents.aero
-aircraft.aero
-airline.aero
-airport.aero
-air-surveillance.aero
-airtraffic.aero
-air-traffic-control.aero
-ambulance.aero
-amusement.aero
-association.aero
-author.aero
-ballooning.aero
-broker.aero
-caa.aero
-cargo.aero
-catering.aero
-certification.aero
-championship.aero
-charter.aero
-civilaviation.aero
-club.aero
-conference.aero
-consultant.aero
-consulting.aero
-control.aero
-council.aero
-crew.aero
-design.aero
-dgca.aero
-educator.aero
-emergency.aero
-engine.aero
-engineer.aero
-entertainment.aero
-equipment.aero
-exchange.aero
-express.aero
-federation.aero
-flight.aero
-freight.aero
-fuel.aero
-gliding.aero
-government.aero
-groundhandling.aero
-group.aero
-hanggliding.aero
-homebuilt.aero
-insurance.aero
-journal.aero
-journalist.aero
-leasing.aero
-logistics.aero
-magazine.aero
-maintenance.aero
-marketplace.aero
-media.aero
-microlight.aero
-modelling.aero
-navigation.aero
-parachuting.aero
-paragliding.aero
-passenger-association.aero
-pilot.aero
-press.aero
-production.aero
-recreation.aero
-repbody.aero
-res.aero
-research.aero
-rotorcraft.aero
-safety.aero
-scientist.aero
-services.aero
-show.aero
-skydiving.aero
-software.aero
-student.aero
-taxi.aero
-trader.aero
-trading.aero
-trainer.aero
-union.aero
-workinggroup.aero
-works.aero
-
-// af : http://www.nic.af/help.jsp
-af
-gov.af
-com.af
-org.af
-net.af
-edu.af
-
-// ag : http://www.nic.ag/prices.htm
-ag
-com.ag
-org.ag
-net.ag
-co.ag
-nom.ag
-
-// ai : http://nic.com.ai/
-ai
-off.ai
-com.ai
-net.ai
-org.ai
-
-// al : http://www.ert.gov.al/ert_alb/faq_det.html?Id=31
-al
-com.al
-edu.al
-gov.al
-mil.al
-net.al
-org.al
-
-// am : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.am
-am
-
-// an : http://www.una.an/an_domreg/default.asp
-an
-com.an
-net.an
-org.an
-edu.an
-
-// ao : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.ao
-// http://www.dns.ao/REGISTR.DOC
-ao
-ed.ao
-gv.ao
-og.ao
-co.ao
-pb.ao
-it.ao
-
-// aq : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.aq
-aq
-
-// ar : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.ar
-*.ar
-!congresodelalengua3.ar
-!educ.ar
-!gobiernoelectronico.ar
-!mecon.ar
-!nacion.ar
-!nic.ar
-!promocion.ar
-!retina.ar
-!uba.ar
-
-// arpa : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.arpa
-// Confirmed by registry <address@hidden> 2008-06-18
-e164.arpa
-in-addr.arpa
-ip6.arpa
-iris.arpa
-uri.arpa
-urn.arpa
-
-// as : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.as
-as
-gov.as
-
-// asia: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.asia
-asia
-
-// at : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.at
-// Confirmed by registry <address@hidden> 2008-06-17
-at
-ac.at
-co.at
-gv.at
-or.at
-
-// http://www.info.at/
-biz.at
-info.at
-
-// priv.at : http://www.nic.priv.at/
-// Submitted by registry <address@hidden> 2008-06-09
-priv.at
-
-// au : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.au
-*.au
-// au geographical names (vic.au etc... are covered above)
-act.edu.au
-nsw.edu.au
-nt.edu.au
-qld.edu.au
-sa.edu.au
-tas.edu.au
-vic.edu.au
-wa.edu.au
-act.gov.au
-// Removed at request of address@hidden, 2010-03-04
-// nsw.gov.au
-nt.gov.au
-qld.gov.au
-sa.gov.au
-tas.gov.au
-vic.gov.au
-wa.gov.au
-// CGDNs - http://www.aucd.org.au/
-act.au
-nsw.au
-nt.au
-qld.au
-sa.au
-tas.au
-vic.au
-wa.au
-
-// aw : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.aw
-aw
-com.aw
-
-// ax : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.ax
-ax
-
-// az : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.az
-az
-com.az
-net.az
-int.az
-gov.az
-org.az
-edu.az
-info.az
-pp.az
-mil.az
-name.az
-pro.az
-biz.az
-
-// ba : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.ba
-ba
-org.ba
-net.ba
-edu.ba
-gov.ba
-mil.ba
-unsa.ba
-unbi.ba
-co.ba
-com.ba
-rs.ba
-
-// bb : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.bb
-bb
-biz.bb
-com.bb
-edu.bb
-gov.bb
-info.bb
-net.bb
-org.bb
-store.bb
-
-// bd : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.bd
-*.bd
-
-// be : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.be
-// Confirmed by registry <address@hidden> 2008-06-08
-be
-ac.be
-
-// bf : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.bf
-bf
-gov.bf
-
-// bg : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.bg
-// https://www.register.bg/user/static/rules/en/index.html
-bg
-a.bg
-b.bg
-c.bg
-d.bg
-e.bg
-f.bg
-g.bg
-h.bg
-i.bg
-j.bg
-k.bg
-l.bg
-m.bg
-n.bg
-o.bg
-p.bg
-q.bg
-r.bg
-s.bg
-t.bg
-u.bg
-v.bg
-w.bg
-x.bg
-y.bg
-z.bg
-0.bg
-1.bg
-2.bg
-3.bg
-4.bg
-5.bg
-6.bg
-7.bg
-8.bg
-9.bg
-
-// bh : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.bh
-bh
-com.bh
-edu.bh
-net.bh
-org.bh
-gov.bh
-
-// bi : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.bi
-// http://whois.nic.bi/
-bi
-co.bi
-com.bi
-edu.bi
-or.bi
-org.bi
-
-// biz : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.biz
-biz
-
-// bj : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.bj
-bj
-asso.bj
-barreau.bj
-gouv.bj
-
-// bm : http://www.bermudanic.bm/dnr-text.txt
-bm
-com.bm
-edu.bm
-gov.bm
-net.bm
-org.bm
-
-// bn : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.bn
-*.bn
-
-// bo : http://www.nic.bo/
-bo
-com.bo
-edu.bo
-gov.bo
-gob.bo
-int.bo
-org.bo
-net.bo
-mil.bo
-tv.bo
-
-// br : http://registro.br/dominio/dpn.html
-// Updated by registry <address@hidden> 2011-03-01
-br
-adm.br
-adv.br
-agr.br
-am.br
-arq.br
-art.br
-ato.br
-b.br
-bio.br
-blog.br
-bmd.br
-can.br
-cim.br
-cng.br
-cnt.br
-com.br
-coop.br
-ecn.br
-edu.br
-emp.br
-eng.br
-esp.br
-etc.br
-eti.br
-far.br
-flog.br
-fm.br
-fnd.br
-fot.br
-fst.br
-g12.br
-ggf.br
-gov.br
-imb.br
-ind.br
-inf.br
-jor.br
-jus.br
-lel.br
-mat.br
-med.br
-mil.br
-mus.br
-net.br
-nom.br
-not.br
-ntr.br
-odo.br
-org.br
-ppg.br
-pro.br
-psc.br
-psi.br
-qsl.br
-radio.br
-rec.br
-slg.br
-srv.br
-taxi.br
-teo.br
-tmp.br
-trd.br
-tur.br
-tv.br
-vet.br
-vlog.br
-wiki.br
-zlg.br
-
-// bs : http://www.nic.bs/rules.html
-bs
-com.bs
-net.bs
-org.bs
-edu.bs
-gov.bs
-
-// bt : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.bt
-bt
-com.bt
-edu.bt
-gov.bt
-net.bt
-org.bt
-
-// bv : No registrations at this time.
-// Submitted by registry <address@hidden> 2006-06-16
-
-// bw : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.bw
-// http://www.gobin.info/domainname/bw.doc
-// list of other 2nd level tlds ?
-bw
-co.bw
-org.bw
-
-// by : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.by
-// http://tld.by/rules_2006_en.html
-// list of other 2nd level tlds ?
-by
-gov.by
-mil.by
-// Official information does not indicate that com.by is a reserved
-// second-level domain, but it's being used as one (see www.google.com.by and
-// www.yahoo.com.by, for example), so we list it here for safety's sake.
-com.by
-
-// http://hoster.by/
-of.by
-
-// bz : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.bz
-// http://www.belizenic.bz/
-bz
-com.bz
-net.bz
-org.bz
-edu.bz
-gov.bz
-
-// ca : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.ca
-ca
-// ca geographical names
-ab.ca
-bc.ca
-mb.ca
-nb.ca
-nf.ca
-nl.ca
-ns.ca
-nt.ca
-nu.ca
-on.ca
-pe.ca
-qc.ca
-sk.ca
-yk.ca
-// gc.ca: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.gc.ca
-// see also: http://registry.gc.ca/en/SubdomainFAQ
-gc.ca
-
-// cat : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.cat
-cat
-
-// cc : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.cc
-cc
-
-// cd : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.cd
-// see also: https://www.nic.cd/domain/insertDomain_2.jsp?act=1
-cd
-gov.cd
-
-// cf : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.cf
-cf
-
-// cg : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.cg
-cg
-
-// ch : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.ch
-ch
-
-// ci : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.ci
-// http://www.nic.ci/index.php?page=charte
-ci
-org.ci
-or.ci
-com.ci
-co.ci
-edu.ci
-ed.ci
-ac.ci
-net.ci
-go.ci
-asso.ci
-aéroport.ci
-int.ci
-presse.ci
-md.ci
-gouv.ci
-
-// ck : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.ck
-*.ck
-
-// cl : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.cl
-cl
-gov.cl
-gob.cl
-
-// cm : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.cm
-cm
-gov.cm
-
-// cn : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.cn
-// Submitted by registry <address@hidden> 2008-06-11
-cn
-ac.cn
-com.cn
-edu.cn
-gov.cn
-net.cn
-org.cn
-mil.cn
-公司.cn
-网络.cn
-網絡.cn
-// cn geographic names
-ah.cn
-bj.cn
-cq.cn
-fj.cn
-gd.cn
-gs.cn
-gz.cn
-gx.cn
-ha.cn
-hb.cn
-he.cn
-hi.cn
-hl.cn
-hn.cn
-jl.cn
-js.cn
-jx.cn
-ln.cn
-nm.cn
-nx.cn
-qh.cn
-sc.cn
-sd.cn
-sh.cn
-sn.cn
-sx.cn
-tj.cn
-xj.cn
-xz.cn
-yn.cn
-zj.cn
-hk.cn
-mo.cn
-tw.cn
-
-// co : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.co
-// Submitted by registry <address@hidden> 2008-06-11
-co
-arts.co
-com.co
-edu.co
-firm.co
-gov.co
-info.co
-int.co
-mil.co
-net.co
-nom.co
-org.co
-rec.co
-web.co
-
-// com : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.com
-com
-
-// CentralNic names : http://www.centralnic.com/names/domains
-// Confirmed by registry <address@hidden> 2008-06-09
-ar.com
-br.com
-cn.com
-de.com
-eu.com
-gb.com
-hu.com
-jpn.com
-kr.com
-no.com
-qc.com
-ru.com
-sa.com
-se.com
-uk.com
-us.com
-uy.com
-za.com
-
-// Requested by Yngve Pettersen <address@hidden> 2009-11-26
-operaunite.com
-
-// Requested by Eduardo Vela <address@hidden> 2010-09-06
-appspot.com
-
-// coop : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.coop
-coop
-
-// cr : http://www.nic.cr/niccr_publico/showRegistroDominiosScreen.do
-cr
-ac.cr
-co.cr
-ed.cr
-fi.cr
-go.cr
-or.cr
-sa.cr
-
-// cu : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.cu
-cu
-com.cu
-edu.cu
-org.cu
-net.cu
-gov.cu
-inf.cu
-
-// cv : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.cv
-cv
-
-// cx : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.cx
-// list of other 2nd level tlds ?
-cx
-gov.cx
-
-// cy : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.cy
-*.cy
-
-// cz : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.cz
-cz
-
-// de : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.de
-// Confirmed by registry <address@hidden> (with technical
-// reservations) 2008-07-01
-de
-
-// dj : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.dj
-dj
-
-// dk : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.dk
-// Confirmed by registry <address@hidden> 2008-06-17
-dk
-
-// dm : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.dm
-dm
-com.dm
-net.dm
-org.dm
-edu.dm
-gov.dm
-
-// do : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.do
-do
-art.do
-com.do
-edu.do
-gob.do
-gov.do
-mil.do
-net.do
-org.do
-sld.do
-web.do
-
-// dz : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.dz
-dz
-com.dz
-org.dz
-net.dz
-gov.dz
-edu.dz
-asso.dz
-pol.dz
-art.dz
-
-// ec : http://www.nic.ec/reg/paso1.asp
-// Submitted by registry <address@hidden> 2008-07-04
-ec
-com.ec
-info.ec
-net.ec
-fin.ec
-k12.ec
-med.ec
-pro.ec
-org.ec
-edu.ec
-gov.ec
-gob.ec
-mil.ec
-
-// edu : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.edu
-edu
-
-// ee : http://www.eenet.ee/EENet/dom_reeglid.html#lisa_B
-ee
-edu.ee
-gov.ee
-riik.ee
-lib.ee
-med.ee
-com.ee
-pri.ee
-aip.ee
-org.ee
-fie.ee
-
-// eg : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.eg
-eg
-com.eg
-edu.eg
-eun.eg
-gov.eg
-mil.eg
-name.eg
-net.eg
-org.eg
-sci.eg
-
-// er : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.er
-*.er
-
-// es : https://www.nic.es/site_ingles/ingles/dominios/index.html
-es
-com.es
-nom.es
-org.es
-gob.es
-edu.es
-
-// et : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.et
-*.et
-
-// eu : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.eu
-eu
-
-// fi : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.fi
-fi
-// aland.fi : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.ax
-// This domain is being phased out in favor of .ax. As there are still many
-// domains under aland.fi, we still keep it on the list until aland.fi is
-// completely removed.
-// TODO: Check for updates (expected to be phased out around Q1/2009)
-aland.fi
-// iki.fi : Submitted by Hannu Aronsson <address@hidden> 2009-11-05
-iki.fi
-
-// fj : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.fj
-*.fj
-
-// fk : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.fk
-*.fk
-
-// fm : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.fm
-fm
-
-// fo : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.fo
-fo
-
-// fr : http://www.afnic.fr/
-// domaines descriptifs :
http://www.afnic.fr/obtenir/chartes/nommage-fr/annexe-descriptifs
-fr
-com.fr
-asso.fr
-nom.fr
-prd.fr
-presse.fr
-tm.fr
-// domaines sectoriels :
http://www.afnic.fr/obtenir/chartes/nommage-fr/annexe-sectoriels
-aeroport.fr
-assedic.fr
-avocat.fr
-avoues.fr
-cci.fr
-chambagri.fr
-chirurgiens-dentistes.fr
-experts-comptables.fr
-geometre-expert.fr
-gouv.fr
-greta.fr
-huissier-justice.fr
-medecin.fr
-notaires.fr
-pharmacien.fr
-port.fr
-veterinaire.fr
-
-// ga : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.ga
-ga
-
-// gb : This registry is effectively dormant
-// Submitted by registry <address@hidden> 2008-06-12
-
-// gd : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.gd
-gd
-
-// ge : http://www.nic.net.ge/policy_en.pdf
-ge
-com.ge
-edu.ge
-gov.ge
-org.ge
-mil.ge
-net.ge
-pvt.ge
-
-// gf : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.gf
-gf
-
-// gg : http://www.channelisles.net/applic/avextn.shtml
-gg
-co.gg
-org.gg
-net.gg
-sch.gg
-gov.gg
-
-// gh : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.gh
-// see also: http://www.nic.gh/reg_now.php
-// Although domains directly at second level are not possible at the moment,
-// they have been possible for some time and may come back.
-gh
-com.gh
-edu.gh
-gov.gh
-org.gh
-mil.gh
-
-// gi : http://www.nic.gi/rules.html
-gi
-com.gi
-ltd.gi
-gov.gi
-mod.gi
-edu.gi
-org.gi
-
-// gl : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.gl
-// http://nic.gl
-gl
-
-// gm : http://www.nic.gm/htmlpages%5Cgm-policy.htm
-gm
-
-// gn : http://psg.com/dns/gn/gn.txt
-// Submitted by registry <address@hidden> 2008-06-17
-ac.gn
-com.gn
-edu.gn
-gov.gn
-org.gn
-net.gn
-
-// gov : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.gov
-gov
-
-// gp : http://www.nic.gp/index.php?lang=en
-gp
-com.gp
-net.gp
-mobi.gp
-edu.gp
-org.gp
-asso.gp
-
-// gq : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.gq
-gq
-
-// gr : https://grweb.ics.forth.gr/english/1617-B-2005.html
-// Submitted by registry <address@hidden> 2008-06-09
-gr
-com.gr
-edu.gr
-net.gr
-org.gr
-gov.gr
-
-// gs : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.gs
-gs
-
-// gt : http://www.gt/politicas.html
-*.gt
-
-// gu : http://gadao.gov.gu/registration.txt
-*.gu
-
-// gw : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.gw
-gw
-
-// gy : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.gy
-// http://registry.gy/
-gy
-co.gy
-com.gy
-net.gy
-
-// hk : https://www.hkdnr.hk
-// Submitted by registry <address@hidden> 2008-06-11
-hk
-com.hk
-edu.hk
-gov.hk
-idv.hk
-net.hk
-org.hk
-公司.hk
-教育.hk
-敎育.hk
-政府.hk
-個人.hk
-个人.hk
-箇人.hk
-網络.hk
-网络.hk
-组織.hk
-網絡.hk
-网絡.hk
-组织.hk
-組織.hk
-組织.hk
-
-// hm : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.hm
-hm
-
-// hn : http://www.nic.hn/politicas/ps02,,05.html
-hn
-com.hn
-edu.hn
-org.hn
-net.hn
-mil.hn
-gob.hn
-
-// hr : http://www.dns.hr/documents/pdf/HRTLD-regulations.pdf
-hr
-iz.hr
-from.hr
-name.hr
-com.hr
-
-// ht : http://www.nic.ht/info/charte.cfm
-ht
-com.ht
-shop.ht
-firm.ht
-info.ht
-adult.ht
-net.ht
-pro.ht
-org.ht
-med.ht
-art.ht
-coop.ht
-pol.ht
-asso.ht
-edu.ht
-rel.ht
-gouv.ht
-perso.ht
-
-// hu : http://www.domain.hu/domain/English/sld.html
-// Confirmed by registry <address@hidden> 2008-06-12
-hu
-co.hu
-info.hu
-org.hu
-priv.hu
-sport.hu
-tm.hu
-2000.hu
-agrar.hu
-bolt.hu
-casino.hu
-city.hu
-erotica.hu
-erotika.hu
-film.hu
-forum.hu
-games.hu
-hotel.hu
-ingatlan.hu
-jogasz.hu
-konyvelo.hu
-lakas.hu
-media.hu
-news.hu
-reklam.hu
-sex.hu
-shop.hu
-suli.hu
-szex.hu
-tozsde.hu
-utazas.hu
-video.hu
-
-// id : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.id
-// see also: https://register.pandi.or.id/
-id
-ac.id
-co.id
-go.id
-mil.id
-net.id
-or.id
-sch.id
-web.id
-
-// ie : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.ie
-ie
-gov.ie
-
-// il : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.il
-*.il
-
-// im : https://www.nic.im/pdfs/imfaqs.pdf
-im
-co.im
-ltd.co.im
-plc.co.im
-net.im
-gov.im
-org.im
-nic.im
-ac.im
-
-// in : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.in
-// see also: http://www.inregistry.in/policies/
-// Please note, that nic.in is not an offical eTLD, but used by most
-// government institutions.
-in
-co.in
-firm.in
-net.in
-org.in
-gen.in
-ind.in
-nic.in
-ac.in
-edu.in
-res.in
-gov.in
-mil.in
-
-// info : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.info
-info
-
-// int : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.int
-// Confirmed by registry <address@hidden> 2008-06-18
-int
-eu.int
-
-// io : http://www.nic.io/rules.html
-// list of other 2nd level tlds ?
-io
-com.io
-
-// iq : http://www.cmc.iq/english/iq/iqregister1.htm
-iq
-gov.iq
-edu.iq
-mil.iq
-com.iq
-org.iq
-net.iq
-
-// ir : http://www.nic.ir/Terms_and_Conditions_ir,_Appendix_1_Domain_Rules
-// Also see http://www.nic.ir/Internationalized_Domain_Names
-// Two <iran>.ir entries added at request of <address@hidden>, 2010-04-16
-ir
-ac.ir
-co.ir
-gov.ir
-id.ir
-net.ir
-org.ir
-sch.ir
-// xn--mgba3a4f16a.ir (<iran>.ir, Persian YEH)
-ایران.ir
-// xn--mgba3a4fra.ir (<iran>.ir, Arabic YEH)
-ايران.ir
-
-// is : http://www.isnic.is/domain/rules.php
-// Confirmed by registry <address@hidden> 2008-12-06
-is
-net.is
-com.is
-edu.is
-gov.is
-org.is
-int.is
-
-// it : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.it
-it
-gov.it
-edu.it
-// list of reserved geo-names :
-//
http://www.nic.it/documenti/regolamenti-e-linee-guida/regolamento-assegnazione-versione-6.0.pdf
-// (There is also a list of reserved geo-names corresponding to Italian
-// municipalities : http://www.nic.it/documenti/appendice-c.pdf , but it is
-// not included here.)
-agrigento.it
-ag.it
-alessandria.it
-al.it
-ancona.it
-an.it
-aosta.it
-aoste.it
-ao.it
-arezzo.it
-ar.it
-ascoli-piceno.it
-ascolipiceno.it
-ap.it
-asti.it
-at.it
-avellino.it
-av.it
-bari.it
-ba.it
-andria-barletta-trani.it
-andriabarlettatrani.it
-trani-barletta-andria.it
-tranibarlettaandria.it
-barletta-trani-andria.it
-barlettatraniandria.it
-andria-trani-barletta.it
-andriatranibarletta.it
-trani-andria-barletta.it
-traniandriabarletta.it
-bt.it
-belluno.it
-bl.it
-benevento.it
-bn.it
-bergamo.it
-bg.it
-biella.it
-bi.it
-bologna.it
-bo.it
-bolzano.it
-bozen.it
-balsan.it
-alto-adige.it
-altoadige.it
-suedtirol.it
-bz.it
-brescia.it
-bs.it
-brindisi.it
-br.it
-cagliari.it
-ca.it
-caltanissetta.it
-cl.it
-campobasso.it
-cb.it
-carboniaiglesias.it
-carbonia-iglesias.it
-iglesias-carbonia.it
-iglesiascarbonia.it
-ci.it
-caserta.it
-ce.it
-catania.it
-ct.it
-catanzaro.it
-cz.it
-chieti.it
-ch.it
-como.it
-co.it
-cosenza.it
-cs.it
-cremona.it
-cr.it
-crotone.it
-kr.it
-cuneo.it
-cn.it
-dell-ogliastra.it
-dellogliastra.it
-ogliastra.it
-og.it
-enna.it
-en.it
-ferrara.it
-fe.it
-fermo.it
-fm.it
-firenze.it
-florence.it
-fi.it
-foggia.it
-fg.it
-forli-cesena.it
-forlicesena.it
-cesena-forli.it
-cesenaforli.it
-fc.it
-frosinone.it
-fr.it
-genova.it
-genoa.it
-ge.it
-gorizia.it
-go.it
-grosseto.it
-gr.it
-imperia.it
-im.it
-isernia.it
-is.it
-laquila.it
-aquila.it
-aq.it
-la-spezia.it
-laspezia.it
-sp.it
-latina.it
-lt.it
-lecce.it
-le.it
-lecco.it
-lc.it
-livorno.it
-li.it
-lodi.it
-lo.it
-lucca.it
-lu.it
-macerata.it
-mc.it
-mantova.it
-mn.it
-massa-carrara.it
-massacarrara.it
-carrara-massa.it
-carraramassa.it
-ms.it
-matera.it
-mt.it
-medio-campidano.it
-mediocampidano.it
-campidano-medio.it
-campidanomedio.it
-vs.it
-messina.it
-me.it
-milano.it
-milan.it
-mi.it
-modena.it
-mo.it
-monza.it
-monza-brianza.it
-monzabrianza.it
-monzaebrianza.it
-monzaedellabrianza.it
-monza-e-della-brianza.it
-mb.it
-napoli.it
-naples.it
-na.it
-novara.it
-no.it
-nuoro.it
-nu.it
-oristano.it
-or.it
-padova.it
-padua.it
-pd.it
-palermo.it
-pa.it
-parma.it
-pr.it
-pavia.it
-pv.it
-perugia.it
-pg.it
-pescara.it
-pe.it
-pesaro-urbino.it
-pesarourbino.it
-urbino-pesaro.it
-urbinopesaro.it
-pu.it
-piacenza.it
-pc.it
-pisa.it
-pi.it
-pistoia.it
-pt.it
-pordenone.it
-pn.it
-potenza.it
-pz.it
-prato.it
-po.it
-ragusa.it
-rg.it
-ravenna.it
-ra.it
-reggio-calabria.it
-reggiocalabria.it
-rc.it
-reggio-emilia.it
-reggioemilia.it
-re.it
-rieti.it
-ri.it
-rimini.it
-rn.it
-roma.it
-rome.it
-rm.it
-rovigo.it
-ro.it
-salerno.it
-sa.it
-sassari.it
-ss.it
-savona.it
-sv.it
-siena.it
-si.it
-siracusa.it
-sr.it
-sondrio.it
-so.it
-taranto.it
-ta.it
-tempio-olbia.it
-tempioolbia.it
-olbia-tempio.it
-olbiatempio.it
-ot.it
-teramo.it
-te.it
-terni.it
-tr.it
-torino.it
-turin.it
-to.it
-trapani.it
-tp.it
-trento.it
-trentino.it
-tn.it
-treviso.it
-tv.it
-trieste.it
-ts.it
-udine.it
-ud.it
-varese.it
-va.it
-venezia.it
-venice.it
-ve.it
-verbania.it
-vb.it
-vercelli.it
-vc.it
-verona.it
-vr.it
-vibo-valentia.it
-vibovalentia.it
-vv.it
-vicenza.it
-vi.it
-viterbo.it
-vt.it
-
-// je : http://www.channelisles.net/applic/avextn.shtml
-je
-co.je
-org.je
-net.je
-sch.je
-gov.je
-
-// jm : http://www.com.jm/register.html
-*.jm
-
-// jo : http://www.dns.jo/Registration_policy.aspx
-jo
-com.jo
-org.jo
-net.jo
-edu.jo
-sch.jo
-gov.jo
-mil.jo
-name.jo
-
-// jobs : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.jobs
-jobs
-
-// jp : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.jp
-// http://jprs.co.jp/en/jpdomain.html
-// Submitted by registry <address@hidden> 2008-06-11
-// Updated by registry <address@hidden> 2008-12-04
-jp
-// jp organizational type names
-ac.jp
-ad.jp
-co.jp
-ed.jp
-go.jp
-gr.jp
-lg.jp
-ne.jp
-or.jp
-// jp geographic type names
-// http://jprs.jp/doc/rule/saisoku-1.html
-*.aichi.jp
-*.akita.jp
-*.aomori.jp
-*.chiba.jp
-*.ehime.jp
-*.fukui.jp
-*.fukuoka.jp
-*.fukushima.jp
-*.gifu.jp
-*.gunma.jp
-*.hiroshima.jp
-*.hokkaido.jp
-*.hyogo.jp
-*.ibaraki.jp
-*.ishikawa.jp
-*.iwate.jp
-*.kagawa.jp
-*.kagoshima.jp
-*.kanagawa.jp
-*.kawasaki.jp
-*.kitakyushu.jp
-*.kobe.jp
-*.kochi.jp
-*.kumamoto.jp
-*.kyoto.jp
-*.mie.jp
-*.miyagi.jp
-*.miyazaki.jp
-*.nagano.jp
-*.nagasaki.jp
-*.nagoya.jp
-*.nara.jp
-*.niigata.jp
-*.oita.jp
-*.okayama.jp
-*.okinawa.jp
-*.osaka.jp
-*.saga.jp
-*.saitama.jp
-*.sapporo.jp
-*.sendai.jp
-*.shiga.jp
-*.shimane.jp
-*.shizuoka.jp
-*.tochigi.jp
-*.tokushima.jp
-*.tokyo.jp
-*.tottori.jp
-*.toyama.jp
-*.wakayama.jp
-*.yamagata.jp
-*.yamaguchi.jp
-*.yamanashi.jp
-*.yokohama.jp
-!metro.tokyo.jp
-!pref.aichi.jp
-!pref.akita.jp
-!pref.aomori.jp
-!pref.chiba.jp
-!pref.ehime.jp
-!pref.fukui.jp
-!pref.fukuoka.jp
-!pref.fukushima.jp
-!pref.gifu.jp
-!pref.gunma.jp
-!pref.hiroshima.jp
-!pref.hokkaido.jp
-!pref.hyogo.jp
-!pref.ibaraki.jp
-!pref.ishikawa.jp
-!pref.iwate.jp
-!pref.kagawa.jp
-!pref.kagoshima.jp
-!pref.kanagawa.jp
-!pref.kochi.jp
-!pref.kumamoto.jp
-!pref.kyoto.jp
-!pref.mie.jp
-!pref.miyagi.jp
-!pref.miyazaki.jp
-!pref.nagano.jp
-!pref.nagasaki.jp
-!pref.nara.jp
-!pref.niigata.jp
-!pref.oita.jp
-!pref.okayama.jp
-!pref.okinawa.jp
-!pref.osaka.jp
-!pref.saga.jp
-!pref.saitama.jp
-!pref.shiga.jp
-!pref.shimane.jp
-!pref.shizuoka.jp
-!pref.tochigi.jp
-!pref.tokushima.jp
-!pref.tottori.jp
-!pref.toyama.jp
-!pref.wakayama.jp
-!pref.yamagata.jp
-!pref.yamaguchi.jp
-!pref.yamanashi.jp
-!city.chiba.jp
-!city.fukuoka.jp
-!city.hiroshima.jp
-!city.kawasaki.jp
-!city.kitakyushu.jp
-!city.kobe.jp
-!city.kyoto.jp
-!city.nagoya.jp
-!city.niigata.jp
-!city.okayama.jp
-!city.osaka.jp
-!city.saitama.jp
-!city.sapporo.jp
-!city.sendai.jp
-!city.shizuoka.jp
-!city.yokohama.jp
-
-// ke :
http://www.kenic.or.ke/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=117&Itemid=145
-*.ke
-
-// kg : http://www.domain.kg/dmn_n.html
-kg
-org.kg
-net.kg
-com.kg
-edu.kg
-gov.kg
-mil.kg
-
-// kh : http://www.mptc.gov.kh/dns_registration.htm
-*.kh
-
-// ki : http://www.ki/dns/index.html
-ki
-edu.ki
-biz.ki
-net.ki
-org.ki
-gov.ki
-info.ki
-com.ki
-
-// km : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.km
-// http://www.domaine.km/documents/charte.doc
-km
-org.km
-nom.km
-gov.km
-prd.km
-tm.km
-edu.km
-mil.km
-ass.km
-com.km
-// These are only mentioned as proposed suggestions at domaine.km, but
-// http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.km says they're available for registration:
-coop.km
-asso.km
-presse.km
-medecin.km
-notaires.km
-pharmaciens.km
-veterinaire.km
-gouv.km
-
-// kn : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.kn
-// http://www.dot.kn/domainRules.html
-kn
-net.kn
-org.kn
-edu.kn
-gov.kn
-
-// kp : http://www.kcce.kp/en_index.php
-com.kp
-edu.kp
-gov.kp
-org.kp
-rep.kp
-tra.kp
-
-// kr : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.kr
-// see also: http://domain.nida.or.kr/eng/registration.jsp
-kr
-ac.kr
-co.kr
-es.kr
-go.kr
-hs.kr
-kg.kr
-mil.kr
-ms.kr
-ne.kr
-or.kr
-pe.kr
-re.kr
-sc.kr
-// kr geographical names
-busan.kr
-chungbuk.kr
-chungnam.kr
-daegu.kr
-daejeon.kr
-gangwon.kr
-gwangju.kr
-gyeongbuk.kr
-gyeonggi.kr
-gyeongnam.kr
-incheon.kr
-jeju.kr
-jeonbuk.kr
-jeonnam.kr
-seoul.kr
-ulsan.kr
-
-// kw : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.kw
-*.kw
-
-// ky : http://www.icta.ky/da_ky_reg_dom.php
-// Confirmed by registry <address@hidden> 2008-06-17
-ky
-edu.ky
-gov.ky
-com.ky
-org.ky
-net.ky
-
-// kz : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.kz
-// see also: http://www.nic.kz/rules/index.jsp
-kz
-org.kz
-edu.kz
-net.kz
-gov.kz
-mil.kz
-com.kz
-
-// la : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.la
-// Submitted by registry <address@hidden> 2008-06-10
-la
-int.la
-net.la
-info.la
-edu.la
-gov.la
-per.la
-com.la
-org.la
-// see http://www.c.la/
-c.la
-
-// lb : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.lb
-// Submitted by registry <address@hidden> 2008-06-17
-com.lb
-edu.lb
-gov.lb
-net.lb
-org.lb
-
-// lc : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.lc
-// see also: http://www.nic.lc/rules.htm
-lc
-com.lc
-net.lc
-co.lc
-org.lc
-edu.lc
-gov.lc
-
-// li : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.li
-li
-
-// lk : http://www.nic.lk/seclevpr.html
-lk
-gov.lk
-sch.lk
-net.lk
-int.lk
-com.lk
-org.lk
-edu.lk
-ngo.lk
-soc.lk
-web.lk
-ltd.lk
-assn.lk
-grp.lk
-hotel.lk
-
-// local : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.local
-local
-
-// lr : http://psg.com/dns/lr/lr.txt
-// Submitted by registry <address@hidden> 2008-06-17
-com.lr
-edu.lr
-gov.lr
-org.lr
-net.lr
-
-// ls : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.ls
-ls
-co.ls
-org.ls
-
-// lt : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.lt
-lt
-// gov.lt : http://www.gov.lt/index_en.php
-gov.lt
-
-// lu : http://www.dns.lu/en/
-lu
-
-// lv : http://www.nic.lv/DNS/En/generic.php
-lv
-com.lv
-edu.lv
-gov.lv
-org.lv
-mil.lv
-id.lv
-net.lv
-asn.lv
-conf.lv
-
-// ly : http://www.nic.ly/regulations.php
-ly
-com.ly
-net.ly
-gov.ly
-plc.ly
-edu.ly
-sch.ly
-med.ly
-org.ly
-id.ly
-
-// ma : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.ma
-// http://www.anrt.ma/fr/admin/download/upload/file_fr782.pdf
-ma
-co.ma
-net.ma
-gov.ma
-org.ma
-ac.ma
-press.ma
-
-// mc : http://www.nic.mc/
-mc
-tm.mc
-asso.mc
-
-// md : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.md
-md
-
-// me : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.me
-me
-co.me
-net.me
-org.me
-edu.me
-ac.me
-gov.me
-its.me
-priv.me
-
-// mg : http://www.nic.mg/tarif.htm
-mg
-org.mg
-nom.mg
-gov.mg
-prd.mg
-tm.mg
-edu.mg
-mil.mg
-com.mg
-
-// mh : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.mh
-mh
-
-// mil : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.mil
-mil
-
-// mk : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.mk
-// see also: http://dns.marnet.net.mk/postapka.php
-mk
-com.mk
-org.mk
-net.mk
-edu.mk
-gov.mk
-inf.mk
-name.mk
-
-// ml : http://www.gobin.info/domainname/ml-template.doc
-// see also: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.ml
-ml
-com.ml
-edu.ml
-gouv.ml
-gov.ml
-net.ml
-org.ml
-presse.ml
-
-// mm : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.mm
-*.mm
-
-// mn : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.mn
-mn
-gov.mn
-edu.mn
-org.mn
-
-// mo : http://www.monic.net.mo/
-mo
-com.mo
-net.mo
-org.mo
-edu.mo
-gov.mo
-
-// mobi : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.mobi
-mobi
-
-// mp : http://www.dot.mp/
-// Confirmed by registry <address@hidden> 2008-06-17
-mp
-
-// mq : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.mq
-mq
-
-// mr : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.mr
-mr
-gov.mr
-
-// ms : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.ms
-ms
-
-// mt : https://www.nic.org.mt/dotmt/
-*.mt
-
-// mu : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.mu
-mu
-com.mu
-net.mu
-org.mu
-gov.mu
-ac.mu
-co.mu
-or.mu
-
-// museum : http://about.museum/naming/
-// http://index.museum/
-museum
-academy.museum
-agriculture.museum
-air.museum
-airguard.museum
-alabama.museum
-alaska.museum
-amber.museum
-ambulance.museum
-american.museum
-americana.museum
-americanantiques.museum
-americanart.museum
-amsterdam.museum
-and.museum
-annefrank.museum
-anthro.museum
-anthropology.museum
-antiques.museum
-aquarium.museum
-arboretum.museum
-archaeological.museum
-archaeology.museum
-architecture.museum
-art.museum
-artanddesign.museum
-artcenter.museum
-artdeco.museum
-arteducation.museum
-artgallery.museum
-arts.museum
-artsandcrafts.museum
-asmatart.museum
-assassination.museum
-assisi.museum
-association.museum
-astronomy.museum
-atlanta.museum
-austin.museum
-australia.museum
-automotive.museum
-aviation.museum
-axis.museum
-badajoz.museum
-baghdad.museum
-bahn.museum
-bale.museum
-baltimore.museum
-barcelona.museum
-baseball.museum
-basel.museum
-baths.museum
-bauern.museum
-beauxarts.museum
-beeldengeluid.museum
-bellevue.museum
-bergbau.museum
-berkeley.museum
-berlin.museum
-bern.museum
-bible.museum
-bilbao.museum
-bill.museum
-birdart.museum
-birthplace.museum
-bonn.museum
-boston.museum
-botanical.museum
-botanicalgarden.museum
-botanicgarden.museum
-botany.museum
-brandywinevalley.museum
-brasil.museum
-bristol.museum
-british.museum
-britishcolumbia.museum
-broadcast.museum
-brunel.museum
-brussel.museum
-brussels.museum
-bruxelles.museum
-building.museum
-burghof.museum
-bus.museum
-bushey.museum
-cadaques.museum
-california.museum
-cambridge.museum
-can.museum
-canada.museum
-capebreton.museum
-carrier.museum
-cartoonart.museum
-casadelamoneda.museum
-castle.museum
-castres.museum
-celtic.museum
-center.museum
-chattanooga.museum
-cheltenham.museum
-chesapeakebay.museum
-chicago.museum
-children.museum
-childrens.museum
-childrensgarden.museum
-chiropractic.museum
-chocolate.museum
-christiansburg.museum
-cincinnati.museum
-cinema.museum
-circus.museum
-civilisation.museum
-civilization.museum
-civilwar.museum
-clinton.museum
-clock.museum
-coal.museum
-coastaldefence.museum
-cody.museum
-coldwar.museum
-collection.museum
-colonialwilliamsburg.museum
-coloradoplateau.museum
-columbia.museum
-columbus.museum
-communication.museum
-communications.museum
-community.museum
-computer.museum
-computerhistory.museum
-comunicações.museum
-contemporary.museum
-contemporaryart.museum
-convent.museum
-copenhagen.museum
-corporation.museum
-correios-e-telecomunicações.museum
-corvette.museum
-costume.museum
-countryestate.museum
-county.museum
-crafts.museum
-cranbrook.museum
-creation.museum
-cultural.museum
-culturalcenter.museum
-culture.museum
-cyber.museum
-cymru.museum
-dali.museum
-dallas.museum
-database.museum
-ddr.museum
-decorativearts.museum
-delaware.museum
-delmenhorst.museum
-denmark.museum
-depot.museum
-design.museum
-detroit.museum
-dinosaur.museum
-discovery.museum
-dolls.museum
-donostia.museum
-durham.museum
-eastafrica.museum
-eastcoast.museum
-education.museum
-educational.museum
-egyptian.museum
-eisenbahn.museum
-elburg.museum
-elvendrell.museum
-embroidery.museum
-encyclopedic.museum
-england.museum
-entomology.museum
-environment.museum
-environmentalconservation.museum
-epilepsy.museum
-essex.museum
-estate.museum
-ethnology.museum
-exeter.museum
-exhibition.museum
-family.museum
-farm.museum
-farmequipment.museum
-farmers.museum
-farmstead.museum
-field.museum
-figueres.museum
-filatelia.museum
-film.museum
-fineart.museum
-finearts.museum
-finland.museum
-flanders.museum
-florida.museum
-force.museum
-fortmissoula.museum
-fortworth.museum
-foundation.museum
-francaise.museum
-frankfurt.museum
-franziskaner.museum
-freemasonry.museum
-freiburg.museum
-fribourg.museum
-frog.museum
-fundacio.museum
-furniture.museum
-gallery.museum
-garden.museum
-gateway.museum
-geelvinck.museum
-gemological.museum
-geology.museum
-georgia.museum
-giessen.museum
-glas.museum
-glass.museum
-gorge.museum
-grandrapids.museum
-graz.museum
-guernsey.museum
-halloffame.museum
-hamburg.museum
-handson.museum
-harvestcelebration.museum
-hawaii.museum
-health.museum
-heimatunduhren.museum
-hellas.museum
-helsinki.museum
-hembygdsforbund.museum
-heritage.museum
-histoire.museum
-historical.museum
-historicalsociety.museum
-historichouses.museum
-historisch.museum
-historisches.museum
-history.museum
-historyofscience.museum
-horology.museum
-house.museum
-humanities.museum
-illustration.museum
-imageandsound.museum
-indian.museum
-indiana.museum
-indianapolis.museum
-indianmarket.museum
-intelligence.museum
-interactive.museum
-iraq.museum
-iron.museum
-isleofman.museum
-jamison.museum
-jefferson.museum
-jerusalem.museum
-jewelry.museum
-jewish.museum
-jewishart.museum
-jfk.museum
-journalism.museum
-judaica.museum
-judygarland.museum
-juedisches.museum
-juif.museum
-karate.museum
-karikatur.museum
-kids.museum
-koebenhavn.museum
-koeln.museum
-kunst.museum
-kunstsammlung.museum
-kunstunddesign.museum
-labor.museum
-labour.museum
-lajolla.museum
-lancashire.museum
-landes.museum
-lans.museum
-läns.museum
-larsson.museum
-lewismiller.museum
-lincoln.museum
-linz.museum
-living.museum
-livinghistory.museum
-localhistory.museum
-london.museum
-losangeles.museum
-louvre.museum
-loyalist.museum
-lucerne.museum
-luxembourg.museum
-luzern.museum
-mad.museum
-madrid.museum
-mallorca.museum
-manchester.museum
-mansion.museum
-mansions.museum
-manx.museum
-marburg.museum
-maritime.museum
-maritimo.museum
-maryland.museum
-marylhurst.museum
-media.museum
-medical.museum
-medizinhistorisches.museum
-meeres.museum
-memorial.museum
-mesaverde.museum
-michigan.museum
-midatlantic.museum
-military.museum
-mill.museum
-miners.museum
-mining.museum
-minnesota.museum
-missile.museum
-missoula.museum
-modern.museum
-moma.museum
-money.museum
-monmouth.museum
-monticello.museum
-montreal.museum
-moscow.museum
-motorcycle.museum
-muenchen.museum
-muenster.museum
-mulhouse.museum
-muncie.museum
-museet.museum
-museumcenter.museum
-museumvereniging.museum
-music.museum
-national.museum
-nationalfirearms.museum
-nationalheritage.museum
-nativeamerican.museum
-naturalhistory.museum
-naturalhistorymuseum.museum
-naturalsciences.museum
-nature.museum
-naturhistorisches.museum
-natuurwetenschappen.museum
-naumburg.museum
-naval.museum
-nebraska.museum
-neues.museum
-newhampshire.museum
-newjersey.museum
-newmexico.museum
-newport.museum
-newspaper.museum
-newyork.museum
-niepce.museum
-norfolk.museum
-north.museum
-nrw.museum
-nuernberg.museum
-nuremberg.museum
-nyc.museum
-nyny.museum
-oceanographic.museum
-oceanographique.museum
-omaha.museum
-online.museum
-ontario.museum
-openair.museum
-oregon.museum
-oregontrail.museum
-otago.museum
-oxford.museum
-pacific.museum
-paderborn.museum
-palace.museum
-paleo.museum
-palmsprings.museum
-panama.museum
-paris.museum
-pasadena.museum
-pharmacy.museum
-philadelphia.museum
-philadelphiaarea.museum
-philately.museum
-phoenix.museum
-photography.museum
-pilots.museum
-pittsburgh.museum
-planetarium.museum
-plantation.museum
-plants.museum
-plaza.museum
-portal.museum
-portland.museum
-portlligat.museum
-posts-and-telecommunications.museum
-preservation.museum
-presidio.museum
-press.museum
-project.museum
-public.museum
-pubol.museum
-quebec.museum
-railroad.museum
-railway.museum
-research.museum
-resistance.museum
-riodejaneiro.museum
-rochester.museum
-rockart.museum
-roma.museum
-russia.museum
-saintlouis.museum
-salem.museum
-salvadordali.museum
-salzburg.museum
-sandiego.museum
-sanfrancisco.museum
-santabarbara.museum
-santacruz.museum
-santafe.museum
-saskatchewan.museum
-satx.museum
-savannahga.museum
-schlesisches.museum
-schoenbrunn.museum
-schokoladen.museum
-school.museum
-schweiz.museum
-science.museum
-scienceandhistory.museum
-scienceandindustry.museum
-sciencecenter.museum
-sciencecenters.museum
-science-fiction.museum
-sciencehistory.museum
-sciences.museum
-sciencesnaturelles.museum
-scotland.museum
-seaport.museum
-settlement.museum
-settlers.museum
-shell.museum
-sherbrooke.museum
-sibenik.museum
-silk.museum
-ski.museum
-skole.museum
-society.museum
-sologne.museum
-soundandvision.museum
-southcarolina.museum
-southwest.museum
-space.museum
-spy.museum
-square.museum
-stadt.museum
-stalbans.museum
-starnberg.museum
-state.museum
-stateofdelaware.museum
-station.museum
-steam.museum
-steiermark.museum
-stjohn.museum
-stockholm.museum
-stpetersburg.museum
-stuttgart.museum
-suisse.museum
-surgeonshall.museum
-surrey.museum
-svizzera.museum
-sweden.museum
-sydney.museum
-tank.museum
-tcm.museum
-technology.museum
-telekommunikation.museum
-television.museum
-texas.museum
-textile.museum
-theater.museum
-time.museum
-timekeeping.museum
-topology.museum
-torino.museum
-touch.museum
-town.museum
-transport.museum
-tree.museum
-trolley.museum
-trust.museum
-trustee.museum
-uhren.museum
-ulm.museum
-undersea.museum
-university.museum
-usa.museum
-usantiques.museum
-usarts.museum
-uscountryestate.museum
-usculture.museum
-usdecorativearts.museum
-usgarden.museum
-ushistory.museum
-ushuaia.museum
-uslivinghistory.museum
-utah.museum
-uvic.museum
-valley.museum
-vantaa.museum
-versailles.museum
-viking.museum
-village.museum
-virginia.museum
-virtual.museum
-virtuel.museum
-vlaanderen.museum
-volkenkunde.museum
-wales.museum
-wallonie.museum
-war.museum
-washingtondc.museum
-watchandclock.museum
-watch-and-clock.museum
-western.museum
-westfalen.museum
-whaling.museum
-wildlife.museum
-williamsburg.museum
-windmill.museum
-workshop.museum
-york.museum
-yorkshire.museum
-yosemite.museum
-youth.museum
-zoological.museum
-zoology.museum
-ירושלים.museum
-иком.museum
-
-// mv : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.mv
-// "mv" included because, contra Wikipedia, google.mv exists.
-mv
-aero.mv
-biz.mv
-com.mv
-coop.mv
-edu.mv
-gov.mv
-info.mv
-int.mv
-mil.mv
-museum.mv
-name.mv
-net.mv
-org.mv
-pro.mv
-
-// mw : http://www.registrar.mw/
-mw
-ac.mw
-biz.mw
-co.mw
-com.mw
-coop.mw
-edu.mw
-gov.mw
-int.mw
-museum.mw
-net.mw
-org.mw
-
-// mx : http://www.nic.mx/
-// Submitted by registry <address@hidden> 2008-06-19
-mx
-com.mx
-org.mx
-gob.mx
-edu.mx
-net.mx
-
-// my : http://www.mynic.net.my/
-my
-com.my
-net.my
-org.my
-gov.my
-edu.my
-mil.my
-name.my
-
-// mz : http://www.gobin.info/domainname/mz-template.doc
-*.mz
-
-// na : http://www.na-nic.com.na/
-// http://www.info.na/domain/
-na
-info.na
-pro.na
-name.na
-school.na
-or.na
-dr.na
-us.na
-mx.na
-ca.na
-in.na
-cc.na
-tv.na
-ws.na
-mobi.na
-co.na
-com.na
-org.na
-
-// name : has 2nd-level tlds, but there's no list of them
-name
-
-// nc : http://www.cctld.nc/
-nc
-asso.nc
-
-// ne : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.ne
-ne
-
-// net : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.net
-net
-
-// CentralNic names : http://www.centralnic.com/names/domains
-// Submitted by registry <address@hidden> 2008-06-17
-gb.net
-se.net
-uk.net
-
-// ZaNiC names : http://www.za.net/
-// Confirmed by registry <address@hidden> 2009-10-03
-za.net
-
-// nf : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.nf
-nf
-com.nf
-net.nf
-per.nf
-rec.nf
-web.nf
-arts.nf
-firm.nf
-info.nf
-other.nf
-store.nf
-
-// ng : http://psg.com/dns/ng/
-// Submitted by registry <address@hidden> 2008-06-17
-ac.ng
-com.ng
-edu.ng
-gov.ng
-net.ng
-org.ng
-
-// ni : http://www.nic.ni/dominios.htm
-*.ni
-
-// nl : http://www.domain-registry.nl/ace.php/c,728,122,,,,Home.html
-// Confirmed by registry <address@hidden> (with technical
-// reservations) 2008-06-08
-nl
-
-// BV.nl will be a registry for dutch BV's (besloten vennootschap)
-bv.nl
-
-// the co.nl domain is managed by CoDNS B.V. Added 2010-05-23.
-co.nl
-
-// no : http://www.norid.no/regelverk/index.en.html
-// The Norwegian registry has declined to notify us of updates. The web pages
-// referenced below are the official source of the data. There is also an
-// announce mailing list:
-// https://postlister.uninett.no/sympa/info/norid-diskusjon
-no
-// Norid generic domains : http://www.norid.no/regelverk/vedlegg-c.en.html
-fhs.no
-vgs.no
-fylkesbibl.no
-folkebibl.no
-museum.no
-idrett.no
-priv.no
-// Non-Norid generic domains : http://www.norid.no/regelverk/vedlegg-d.en.html
-mil.no
-stat.no
-dep.no
-kommune.no
-herad.no
-// no geographical names : http://www.norid.no/regelverk/vedlegg-b.en.html
-// counties
-aa.no
-ah.no
-bu.no
-fm.no
-hl.no
-hm.no
-jan-mayen.no
-mr.no
-nl.no
-nt.no
-of.no
-ol.no
-oslo.no
-rl.no
-sf.no
-st.no
-svalbard.no
-tm.no
-tr.no
-va.no
-vf.no
-// primary and lower secondary schools per county
-gs.aa.no
-gs.ah.no
-gs.bu.no
-gs.fm.no
-gs.hl.no
-gs.hm.no
-gs.jan-mayen.no
-gs.mr.no
-gs.nl.no
-gs.nt.no
-gs.of.no
-gs.ol.no
-gs.oslo.no
-gs.rl.no
-gs.sf.no
-gs.st.no
-gs.svalbard.no
-gs.tm.no
-gs.tr.no
-gs.va.no
-gs.vf.no
-// cities
-akrehamn.no
-åkrehamn.no
-algard.no
-ålgård.no
-arna.no
-brumunddal.no
-bryne.no
-bronnoysund.no
-brønnøysund.no
-drobak.no
-drøbak.no
-egersund.no
-fetsund.no
-floro.no
-florø.no
-fredrikstad.no
-hokksund.no
-honefoss.no
-hønefoss.no
-jessheim.no
-jorpeland.no
-jørpeland.no
-kirkenes.no
-kopervik.no
-krokstadelva.no
-langevag.no
-langevåg.no
-leirvik.no
-mjondalen.no
-mjøndalen.no
-mo-i-rana.no
-mosjoen.no
-mosjøen.no
-nesoddtangen.no
-orkanger.no
-osoyro.no
-osøyro.no
-raholt.no
-råholt.no
-sandnessjoen.no
-sandnessjøen.no
-skedsmokorset.no
-slattum.no
-spjelkavik.no
-stathelle.no
-stavern.no
-stjordalshalsen.no
-stjørdalshalsen.no
-tananger.no
-tranby.no
-vossevangen.no
-// communities
-afjord.no
-åfjord.no
-agdenes.no
-al.no
-ål.no
-alesund.no
-ålesund.no
-alstahaug.no
-alta.no
-áltá.no
-alaheadju.no
-álaheadju.no
-alvdal.no
-amli.no
-åmli.no
-amot.no
-åmot.no
-andebu.no
-andoy.no
-andøy.no
-andasuolo.no
-ardal.no
-årdal.no
-aremark.no
-arendal.no
-ås.no
-aseral.no
-åseral.no
-asker.no
-askim.no
-askvoll.no
-askoy.no
-askøy.no
-asnes.no
-åsnes.no
-audnedaln.no
-aukra.no
-aure.no
-aurland.no
-aurskog-holand.no
-aurskog-høland.no
-austevoll.no
-austrheim.no
-averoy.no
-averøy.no
-balestrand.no
-ballangen.no
-balat.no
-bálát.no
-balsfjord.no
-bahccavuotna.no
-báhccavuotna.no
-bamble.no
-bardu.no
-beardu.no
-beiarn.no
-bajddar.no
-bájddar.no
-baidar.no
-báidár.no
-berg.no
-bergen.no
-berlevag.no
-berlevåg.no
-bearalvahki.no
-bearalváhki.no
-bindal.no
-birkenes.no
-bjarkoy.no
-bjarkøy.no
-bjerkreim.no
-bjugn.no
-bodo.no
-bodø.no
-badaddja.no
-bådåddjå.no
-budejju.no
-bokn.no
-bremanger.no
-bronnoy.no
-brønnøy.no
-bygland.no
-bykle.no
-barum.no
-bærum.no
-bo.telemark.no
-bø.telemark.no
-bo.nordland.no
-bø.nordland.no
-bievat.no
-bievát.no
-bomlo.no
-bømlo.no
-batsfjord.no
-båtsfjord.no
-bahcavuotna.no
-báhcavuotna.no
-dovre.no
-drammen.no
-drangedal.no
-dyroy.no
-dyrøy.no
-donna.no
-dønna.no
-eid.no
-eidfjord.no
-eidsberg.no
-eidskog.no
-eidsvoll.no
-eigersund.no
-elverum.no
-enebakk.no
-engerdal.no
-etne.no
-etnedal.no
-evenes.no
-evenassi.no
-evenášši.no
-evje-og-hornnes.no
-farsund.no
-fauske.no
-fuossko.no
-fuoisku.no
-fedje.no
-fet.no
-finnoy.no
-finnøy.no
-fitjar.no
-fjaler.no
-fjell.no
-flakstad.no
-flatanger.no
-flekkefjord.no
-flesberg.no
-flora.no
-fla.no
-flå.no
-folldal.no
-forsand.no
-fosnes.no
-frei.no
-frogn.no
-froland.no
-frosta.no
-frana.no
-fræna.no
-froya.no
-frøya.no
-fusa.no
-fyresdal.no
-forde.no
-førde.no
-gamvik.no
-gangaviika.no
-gáŋgaviika.no
-gaular.no
-gausdal.no
-gildeskal.no
-gildeskål.no
-giske.no
-gjemnes.no
-gjerdrum.no
-gjerstad.no
-gjesdal.no
-gjovik.no
-gjøvik.no
-gloppen.no
-gol.no
-gran.no
-grane.no
-granvin.no
-gratangen.no
-grimstad.no
-grong.no
-kraanghke.no
-kråanghke.no
-grue.no
-gulen.no
-hadsel.no
-halden.no
-halsa.no
-hamar.no
-hamaroy.no
-habmer.no
-hábmer.no
-hapmir.no
-hápmir.no
-hammerfest.no
-hammarfeasta.no
-hámmárfeasta.no
-haram.no
-hareid.no
-harstad.no
-hasvik.no
-aknoluokta.no
-ákŋoluokta.no
-hattfjelldal.no
-aarborte.no
-haugesund.no
-hemne.no
-hemnes.no
-hemsedal.no
-heroy.more-og-romsdal.no
-herøy.møre-og-romsdal.no
-heroy.nordland.no
-herøy.nordland.no
-hitra.no
-hjartdal.no
-hjelmeland.no
-hobol.no
-hobøl.no
-hof.no
-hol.no
-hole.no
-holmestrand.no
-holtalen.no
-holtålen.no
-hornindal.no
-horten.no
-hurdal.no
-hurum.no
-hvaler.no
-hyllestad.no
-hagebostad.no
-hægebostad.no
-hoyanger.no
-høyanger.no
-hoylandet.no
-høylandet.no
-ha.no
-hå.no
-ibestad.no
-inderoy.no
-inderøy.no
-iveland.no
-jevnaker.no
-jondal.no
-jolster.no
-jølster.no
-karasjok.no
-karasjohka.no
-kárášjohka.no
-karlsoy.no
-galsa.no
-gálsá.no
-karmoy.no
-karmøy.no
-kautokeino.no
-guovdageaidnu.no
-klepp.no
-klabu.no
-klæbu.no
-kongsberg.no
-kongsvinger.no
-kragero.no
-kragerø.no
-kristiansand.no
-kristiansund.no
-krodsherad.no
-krødsherad.no
-kvalsund.no
-rahkkeravju.no
-ráhkkerávju.no
-kvam.no
-kvinesdal.no
-kvinnherad.no
-kviteseid.no
-kvitsoy.no
-kvitsøy.no
-kvafjord.no
-kvæfjord.no
-giehtavuoatna.no
-kvanangen.no
-kvænangen.no
-navuotna.no
-návuotna.no
-kafjord.no
-kåfjord.no
-gaivuotna.no
-gáivuotna.no
-larvik.no
-lavangen.no
-lavagis.no
-loabat.no
-loabát.no
-lebesby.no
-davvesiida.no
-leikanger.no
-leirfjord.no
-leka.no
-leksvik.no
-lenvik.no
-leangaviika.no
-leaŋgaviika.no
-lesja.no
-levanger.no
-lier.no
-lierne.no
-lillehammer.no
-lillesand.no
-lindesnes.no
-lindas.no
-lindås.no
-lom.no
-loppa.no
-lahppi.no
-láhppi.no
-lund.no
-lunner.no
-luroy.no
-lurøy.no
-luster.no
-lyngdal.no
-lyngen.no
-ivgu.no
-lardal.no
-lerdal.no
-lærdal.no
-lodingen.no
-lødingen.no
-lorenskog.no
-lørenskog.no
-loten.no
-løten.no
-malvik.no
-masoy.no
-måsøy.no
-muosat.no
-muosát.no
-mandal.no
-marker.no
-marnardal.no
-masfjorden.no
-meland.no
-meldal.no
-melhus.no
-meloy.no
-meløy.no
-meraker.no
-meråker.no
-moareke.no
-moåreke.no
-midsund.no
-midtre-gauldal.no
-modalen.no
-modum.no
-molde.no
-moskenes.no
-moss.no
-mosvik.no
-malselv.no
-målselv.no
-malatvuopmi.no
-málatvuopmi.no
-namdalseid.no
-aejrie.no
-namsos.no
-namsskogan.no
-naamesjevuemie.no
-nååmesjevuemie.no
-laakesvuemie.no
-nannestad.no
-narvik.no
-narviika.no
-naustdal.no
-nedre-eiker.no
-nes.akershus.no
-nes.buskerud.no
-nesna.no
-nesodden.no
-nesseby.no
-unjarga.no
-unjárga.no
-nesset.no
-nissedal.no
-nittedal.no
-nord-aurdal.no
-nord-fron.no
-nord-odal.no
-norddal.no
-nordkapp.no
-davvenjarga.no
-davvenjárga.no
-nordre-land.no
-nordreisa.no
-raisa.no
-ráisa.no
-nore-og-uvdal.no
-notodden.no
-naroy.no
-nærøy.no
-notteroy.no
-nøtterøy.no
-odda.no
-oksnes.no
-øksnes.no
-oppdal.no
-oppegard.no
-oppegård.no
-orkdal.no
-orland.no
-ørland.no
-orskog.no
-ørskog.no
-orsta.no
-ørsta.no
-os.hedmark.no
-os.hordaland.no
-osen.no
-osteroy.no
-osterøy.no
-ostre-toten.no
-østre-toten.no
-overhalla.no
-ovre-eiker.no
-øvre-eiker.no
-oyer.no
-øyer.no
-oygarden.no
-øygarden.no
-oystre-slidre.no
-øystre-slidre.no
-porsanger.no
-porsangu.no
-porsáŋgu.no
-porsgrunn.no
-radoy.no
-radøy.no
-rakkestad.no
-rana.no
-ruovat.no
-randaberg.no
-rauma.no
-rendalen.no
-rennebu.no
-rennesoy.no
-rennesøy.no
-rindal.no
-ringebu.no
-ringerike.no
-ringsaker.no
-rissa.no
-risor.no
-risør.no
-roan.no
-rollag.no
-rygge.no
-ralingen.no
-rælingen.no
-rodoy.no
-rødøy.no
-romskog.no
-rømskog.no
-roros.no
-røros.no
-rost.no
-røst.no
-royken.no
-røyken.no
-royrvik.no
-røyrvik.no
-rade.no
-råde.no
-salangen.no
-siellak.no
-saltdal.no
-salat.no
-sálát.no
-sálat.no
-samnanger.no
-sande.more-og-romsdal.no
-sande.møre-og-romsdal.no
-sande.vestfold.no
-sandefjord.no
-sandnes.no
-sandoy.no
-sandøy.no
-sarpsborg.no
-sauda.no
-sauherad.no
-sel.no
-selbu.no
-selje.no
-seljord.no
-sigdal.no
-siljan.no
-sirdal.no
-skaun.no
-skedsmo.no
-ski.no
-skien.no
-skiptvet.no
-skjervoy.no
-skjervøy.no
-skierva.no
-skiervá.no
-skjak.no
-skjåk.no
-skodje.no
-skanland.no
-skånland.no
-skanit.no
-skánit.no
-smola.no
-smøla.no
-snillfjord.no
-snasa.no
-snåsa.no
-snoasa.no
-snaase.no
-snåase.no
-sogndal.no
-sokndal.no
-sola.no
-solund.no
-songdalen.no
-sortland.no
-spydeberg.no
-stange.no
-stavanger.no
-steigen.no
-steinkjer.no
-stjordal.no
-stjørdal.no
-stokke.no
-stor-elvdal.no
-stord.no
-stordal.no
-storfjord.no
-omasvuotna.no
-strand.no
-stranda.no
-stryn.no
-sula.no
-suldal.no
-sund.no
-sunndal.no
-surnadal.no
-sveio.no
-svelvik.no
-sykkylven.no
-sogne.no
-søgne.no
-somna.no
-sømna.no
-sondre-land.no
-søndre-land.no
-sor-aurdal.no
-sør-aurdal.no
-sor-fron.no
-sør-fron.no
-sor-odal.no
-sør-odal.no
-sor-varanger.no
-sør-varanger.no
-matta-varjjat.no
-mátta-várjjat.no
-sorfold.no
-sørfold.no
-sorreisa.no
-sørreisa.no
-sorum.no
-sørum.no
-tana.no
-deatnu.no
-time.no
-tingvoll.no
-tinn.no
-tjeldsund.no
-dielddanuorri.no
-tjome.no
-tjøme.no
-tokke.no
-tolga.no
-torsken.no
-tranoy.no
-tranøy.no
-tromso.no
-tromsø.no
-tromsa.no
-romsa.no
-trondheim.no
-troandin.no
-trysil.no
-trana.no
-træna.no
-trogstad.no
-trøgstad.no
-tvedestrand.no
-tydal.no
-tynset.no
-tysfjord.no
-divtasvuodna.no
-divttasvuotna.no
-tysnes.no
-tysvar.no
-tysvær.no
-tonsberg.no
-tønsberg.no
-ullensaker.no
-ullensvang.no
-ulvik.no
-utsira.no
-vadso.no
-vadsø.no
-cahcesuolo.no
-čáhcesuolo.no
-vaksdal.no
-valle.no
-vang.no
-vanylven.no
-vardo.no
-vardø.no
-varggat.no
-várggát.no
-vefsn.no
-vaapste.no
-vega.no
-vegarshei.no
-vegårshei.no
-vennesla.no
-verdal.no
-verran.no
-vestby.no
-vestnes.no
-vestre-slidre.no
-vestre-toten.no
-vestvagoy.no
-vestvågøy.no
-vevelstad.no
-vik.no
-vikna.no
-vindafjord.no
-volda.no
-voss.no
-varoy.no
-værøy.no
-vagan.no
-vågan.no
-voagat.no
-vagsoy.no
-vågsøy.no
-vaga.no
-vågå.no
-valer.ostfold.no
-våler.østfold.no
-valer.hedmark.no
-våler.hedmark.no
-
-// the co.no domain is managed by CoDNS B.V. Added 2010-05-23.
-co.no
-
-// np : http://www.mos.com.np/register.html
-*.np
-
-// nr : http://cenpac.net.nr/dns/index.html
-// Confirmed by registry <address@hidden> 2008-06-17
-nr
-biz.nr
-info.nr
-gov.nr
-edu.nr
-org.nr
-net.nr
-com.nr
-
-// nu : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.nu
-nu
-
-// nz : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.nz
-*.nz
-
-// om : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.om
-*.om
-!mediaphone.om
-!nawrastelecom.om
-!nawras.om
-!omanmobile.om
-!omanpost.om
-!omantel.om
-!rakpetroleum.om
-!siemens.om
-!songfest.om
-!statecouncil.om
-
-// org : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.org
-org
-
-// CentralNic names : http://www.centralnic.com/names/domains
-// Submitted by registry <address@hidden> 2008-06-17
-ae.org
-
-// ZaNiC names : http://www.za.net/
-// Confirmed by registry <address@hidden> 2009-10-03
-za.org
-
-// pa : http://www.nic.pa/
-// Some additional second level "domains" resolve directly as hostnames, such
as
-// pannet.pa, so we add a rule for "pa".
-pa
-ac.pa
-gob.pa
-com.pa
-org.pa
-sld.pa
-edu.pa
-net.pa
-ing.pa
-abo.pa
-med.pa
-nom.pa
-
-// pe : https://www.nic.pe/InformeFinalComision.pdf
-pe
-edu.pe
-gob.pe
-nom.pe
-mil.pe
-org.pe
-com.pe
-net.pe
-
-// pf : http://www.gobin.info/domainname/formulaire-pf.pdf
-pf
-com.pf
-org.pf
-edu.pf
-
-// pg : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.pg
-*.pg
-
-// ph : http://www.domains.ph/FAQ2.asp
-// Submitted by registry <address@hidden> 2008-06-13
-ph
-com.ph
-net.ph
-org.ph
-gov.ph
-edu.ph
-ngo.ph
-mil.ph
-i.ph
-
-// pk : http://pk5.pknic.net.pk/pk5/msgNamepk.PK
-pk
-com.pk
-net.pk
-edu.pk
-org.pk
-fam.pk
-biz.pk
-web.pk
-gov.pk
-gob.pk
-gok.pk
-gon.pk
-gop.pk
-gos.pk
-info.pk
-
-// pl : http://www.dns.pl/english/
-pl
-// NASK functional domains (nask.pl / dns.pl) :
http://www.dns.pl/english/dns-funk.html
-aid.pl
-agro.pl
-atm.pl
-auto.pl
-biz.pl
-com.pl
-edu.pl
-gmina.pl
-gsm.pl
-info.pl
-mail.pl
-miasta.pl
-media.pl
-mil.pl
-net.pl
-nieruchomosci.pl
-nom.pl
-org.pl
-pc.pl
-powiat.pl
-priv.pl
-realestate.pl
-rel.pl
-sex.pl
-shop.pl
-sklep.pl
-sos.pl
-szkola.pl
-targi.pl
-tm.pl
-tourism.pl
-travel.pl
-turystyka.pl
-// ICM functional domains (icm.edu.pl)
-6bone.pl
-art.pl
-mbone.pl
-// Government domains (administered by ippt.gov.pl)
-gov.pl
-uw.gov.pl
-um.gov.pl
-ug.gov.pl
-upow.gov.pl
-starostwo.gov.pl
-so.gov.pl
-sr.gov.pl
-po.gov.pl
-pa.gov.pl
-// other functional domains
-ngo.pl
-irc.pl
-usenet.pl
-// NASK geographical domains : http://www.dns.pl/english/dns-regiony.html
-augustow.pl
-babia-gora.pl
-bedzin.pl
-beskidy.pl
-bialowieza.pl
-bialystok.pl
-bielawa.pl
-bieszczady.pl
-boleslawiec.pl
-bydgoszcz.pl
-bytom.pl
-cieszyn.pl
-czeladz.pl
-czest.pl
-dlugoleka.pl
-elblag.pl
-elk.pl
-glogow.pl
-gniezno.pl
-gorlice.pl
-grajewo.pl
-ilawa.pl
-jaworzno.pl
-jelenia-gora.pl
-jgora.pl
-kalisz.pl
-kazimierz-dolny.pl
-karpacz.pl
-kartuzy.pl
-kaszuby.pl
-katowice.pl
-kepno.pl
-ketrzyn.pl
-klodzko.pl
-kobierzyce.pl
-kolobrzeg.pl
-konin.pl
-konskowola.pl
-kutno.pl
-lapy.pl
-lebork.pl
-legnica.pl
-lezajsk.pl
-limanowa.pl
-lomza.pl
-lowicz.pl
-lubin.pl
-lukow.pl
-malbork.pl
-malopolska.pl
-mazowsze.pl
-mazury.pl
-mielec.pl
-mielno.pl
-mragowo.pl
-naklo.pl
-nowaruda.pl
-nysa.pl
-olawa.pl
-olecko.pl
-olkusz.pl
-olsztyn.pl
-opoczno.pl
-opole.pl
-ostroda.pl
-ostroleka.pl
-ostrowiec.pl
-ostrowwlkp.pl
-pila.pl
-pisz.pl
-podhale.pl
-podlasie.pl
-polkowice.pl
-pomorze.pl
-pomorskie.pl
-prochowice.pl
-pruszkow.pl
-przeworsk.pl
-pulawy.pl
-radom.pl
-rawa-maz.pl
-rybnik.pl
-rzeszow.pl
-sanok.pl
-sejny.pl
-siedlce.pl
-slask.pl
-slupsk.pl
-sosnowiec.pl
-stalowa-wola.pl
-skoczow.pl
-starachowice.pl
-stargard.pl
-suwalki.pl
-swidnica.pl
-swiebodzin.pl
-swinoujscie.pl
-szczecin.pl
-szczytno.pl
-tarnobrzeg.pl
-tgory.pl
-turek.pl
-tychy.pl
-ustka.pl
-walbrzych.pl
-warmia.pl
-warszawa.pl
-waw.pl
-wegrow.pl
-wielun.pl
-wlocl.pl
-wloclawek.pl
-wodzislaw.pl
-wolomin.pl
-wroclaw.pl
-zachpomor.pl
-zagan.pl
-zarow.pl
-zgora.pl
-zgorzelec.pl
-// TASK geographical domains (www.task.gda.pl/uslugi/dns)
-gda.pl
-gdansk.pl
-gdynia.pl
-med.pl
-sopot.pl
-// other geographical domains
-gliwice.pl
-krakow.pl
-poznan.pl
-wroc.pl
-zakopane.pl
-
-// co.pl : Mainseek Sp. z o.o. http://www.co.pl
-co.pl
-
-// pn : http://www.government.pn/PnRegistry/policies.htm
-pn
-gov.pn
-co.pn
-org.pn
-edu.pn
-net.pn
-
-// pr : http://www.nic.pr/index.asp?f=1
-pr
-com.pr
-net.pr
-org.pr
-gov.pr
-edu.pr
-isla.pr
-pro.pr
-biz.pr
-info.pr
-name.pr
-// these aren't mentioned on nic.pr, but on http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.pr
-est.pr
-prof.pr
-ac.pr
-
-// pro : http://www.nic.pro/support_faq.htm
-pro
-aca.pro
-bar.pro
-cpa.pro
-jur.pro
-law.pro
-med.pro
-eng.pro
-
-// ps : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.ps
-// http://www.nic.ps/registration/policy.html#reg
-ps
-edu.ps
-gov.ps
-sec.ps
-plo.ps
-com.ps
-org.ps
-net.ps
-
-// pt : http://online.dns.pt/dns/start_dns
-pt
-net.pt
-gov.pt
-org.pt
-edu.pt
-int.pt
-publ.pt
-com.pt
-nome.pt
-
-// pw : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.pw
-pw
-co.pw
-ne.pw
-or.pw
-ed.pw
-go.pw
-belau.pw
-
-// py : http://www.nic.py/faq_a.html#faq_b
-*.py
-
-// qa : http://www.qatar.net.qa/services/virtual.htm
-*.qa
-
-// re : http://www.afnic.re/obtenir/chartes/nommage-re/annexe-descriptifs
-re
-com.re
-asso.re
-nom.re
-
-// ro : http://www.rotld.ro/
-ro
-com.ro
-org.ro
-tm.ro
-nt.ro
-nom.ro
-info.ro
-rec.ro
-arts.ro
-firm.ro
-store.ro
-www.ro
-
-// rs : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.rs
-rs
-co.rs
-org.rs
-edu.rs
-ac.rs
-gov.rs
-in.rs
-
-// ru : http://www.cctld.ru/ru/docs/aktiv_8.php
-// Industry domains
-ru
-ac.ru
-com.ru
-edu.ru
-int.ru
-net.ru
-org.ru
-pp.ru
-// Geographical domains
-adygeya.ru
-altai.ru
-amur.ru
-arkhangelsk.ru
-astrakhan.ru
-bashkiria.ru
-belgorod.ru
-bir.ru
-bryansk.ru
-buryatia.ru
-cbg.ru
-chel.ru
-chelyabinsk.ru
-chita.ru
-chukotka.ru
-chuvashia.ru
-dagestan.ru
-dudinka.ru
-e-burg.ru
-grozny.ru
-irkutsk.ru
-ivanovo.ru
-izhevsk.ru
-jar.ru
-joshkar-ola.ru
-kalmykia.ru
-kaluga.ru
-kamchatka.ru
-karelia.ru
-kazan.ru
-kchr.ru
-kemerovo.ru
-khabarovsk.ru
-khakassia.ru
-khv.ru
-kirov.ru
-koenig.ru
-komi.ru
-kostroma.ru
-krasnoyarsk.ru
-kuban.ru
-kurgan.ru
-kursk.ru
-lipetsk.ru
-magadan.ru
-mari.ru
-mari-el.ru
-marine.ru
-mordovia.ru
-mosreg.ru
-msk.ru
-murmansk.ru
-nalchik.ru
-nnov.ru
-nov.ru
-novosibirsk.ru
-nsk.ru
-omsk.ru
-orenburg.ru
-oryol.ru
-palana.ru
-penza.ru
-perm.ru
-pskov.ru
-ptz.ru
-rnd.ru
-ryazan.ru
-sakhalin.ru
-samara.ru
-saratov.ru
-simbirsk.ru
-smolensk.ru
-spb.ru
-stavropol.ru
-stv.ru
-surgut.ru
-tambov.ru
-tatarstan.ru
-tom.ru
-tomsk.ru
-tsaritsyn.ru
-tsk.ru
-tula.ru
-tuva.ru
-tver.ru
-tyumen.ru
-udm.ru
-udmurtia.ru
-ulan-ude.ru
-vladikavkaz.ru
-vladimir.ru
-vladivostok.ru
-volgograd.ru
-vologda.ru
-voronezh.ru
-vrn.ru
-vyatka.ru
-yakutia.ru
-yamal.ru
-yaroslavl.ru
-yekaterinburg.ru
-yuzhno-sakhalinsk.ru
-// More geographical domains
-amursk.ru
-baikal.ru
-cmw.ru
-fareast.ru
-jamal.ru
-kms.ru
-k-uralsk.ru
-kustanai.ru
-kuzbass.ru
-magnitka.ru
-mytis.ru
-nakhodka.ru
-nkz.ru
-norilsk.ru
-oskol.ru
-pyatigorsk.ru
-rubtsovsk.ru
-snz.ru
-syzran.ru
-vdonsk.ru
-zgrad.ru
-// State domains
-gov.ru
-mil.ru
-// Technical domains
-test.ru
-
-// rw : http://www.nic.rw/cgi-bin/policy.pl
-rw
-gov.rw
-net.rw
-edu.rw
-ac.rw
-com.rw
-co.rw
-int.rw
-mil.rw
-gouv.rw
-
-// sa : http://www.nic.net.sa/
-sa
-com.sa
-net.sa
-org.sa
-gov.sa
-med.sa
-pub.sa
-edu.sa
-sch.sa
-
-// sb : http://www.sbnic.net.sb/
-// Submitted by registry <address@hidden> 2008-06-08
-sb
-com.sb
-edu.sb
-gov.sb
-net.sb
-org.sb
-
-// sc : http://www.nic.sc/
-sc
-com.sc
-gov.sc
-net.sc
-org.sc
-edu.sc
-
-// sd : http://www.isoc.sd/sudanic.isoc.sd/billing_pricing.htm
-// Submitted by registry <address@hidden> 2008-06-17
-sd
-com.sd
-net.sd
-org.sd
-edu.sd
-med.sd
-gov.sd
-info.sd
-
-// se : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.se
-// Submitted by registry <address@hidden> 2008-06-24
-se
-a.se
-ac.se
-b.se
-bd.se
-brand.se
-c.se
-d.se
-e.se
-f.se
-fh.se
-fhsk.se
-fhv.se
-g.se
-h.se
-i.se
-k.se
-komforb.se
-kommunalforbund.se
-komvux.se
-l.se
-lanbib.se
-m.se
-n.se
-naturbruksgymn.se
-o.se
-org.se
-p.se
-parti.se
-pp.se
-press.se
-r.se
-s.se
-sshn.se
-t.se
-tm.se
-u.se
-w.se
-x.se
-y.se
-z.se
-
-// sg : http://www.nic.net.sg/sub_policies_agreement/2ld.html
-sg
-com.sg
-net.sg
-org.sg
-gov.sg
-edu.sg
-per.sg
-
-// sh : http://www.nic.sh/rules.html
-// list of 2nd level domains ?
-sh
-
-// si : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.si
-si
-
-// sj : No registrations at this time.
-// Submitted by registry <address@hidden> 2008-06-16
-
-// sk : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.sk
-// list of 2nd level domains ?
-sk
-
-// sl : http://www.nic.sl
-// Submitted by registry <address@hidden> 2008-06-12
-sl
-com.sl
-net.sl
-edu.sl
-gov.sl
-org.sl
-
-// sm : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.sm
-sm
-
-// sn : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.sn
-sn
-art.sn
-com.sn
-edu.sn
-gouv.sn
-org.sn
-perso.sn
-univ.sn
-
-// so : http://www.soregistry.com/
-so
-com.so
-net.so
-org.so
-
-// sr : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.sr
-sr
-
-// st : http://www.nic.st/html/policyrules/
-st
-co.st
-com.st
-consulado.st
-edu.st
-embaixada.st
-gov.st
-mil.st
-net.st
-org.st
-principe.st
-saotome.st
-store.st
-
-// su : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.su
-su
-
-// sv : http://www.svnet.org.sv/svpolicy.html
-*.sv
-
-// sy : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.sy
-// see also: http://www.gobin.info/domainname/sy.doc
-sy
-edu.sy
-gov.sy
-net.sy
-mil.sy
-com.sy
-org.sy
-
-// sz : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.sz
-// http://www.sispa.org.sz/
-sz
-co.sz
-ac.sz
-org.sz
-
-// tc : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.tc
-tc
-
-// td : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.td
-td
-
-// tel: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.tel
-// http://www.telnic.org/
-tel
-
-// tf : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.tf
-tf
-
-// tg : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.tg
-// http://www.nic.tg/nictg/index.php implies no reserved 2nd-level domains,
-// although this contradicts wikipedia.
-tg
-
-// th : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.th
-// Submitted by registry <address@hidden> 2008-06-17
-th
-ac.th
-co.th
-go.th
-in.th
-mi.th
-net.th
-or.th
-
-// tj : http://www.nic.tj/policy.htm
-tj
-ac.tj
-biz.tj
-co.tj
-com.tj
-edu.tj
-go.tj
-gov.tj
-int.tj
-mil.tj
-name.tj
-net.tj
-nic.tj
-org.tj
-test.tj
-web.tj
-
-// tk : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.tk
-tk
-
-// tl : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.tl
-tl
-gov.tl
-
-// tm : http://www.nic.tm/rules.html
-// list of 2nd level tlds ?
-tm
-
-// tn : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.tn
-// http://whois.ati.tn/
-tn
-com.tn
-ens.tn
-fin.tn
-gov.tn
-ind.tn
-intl.tn
-nat.tn
-net.tn
-org.tn
-info.tn
-perso.tn
-tourism.tn
-edunet.tn
-rnrt.tn
-rns.tn
-rnu.tn
-mincom.tn
-agrinet.tn
-defense.tn
-turen.tn
-
-// to : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.to
-// Submitted by registry <address@hidden> 2008-06-17
-to
-com.to
-gov.to
-net.to
-org.to
-edu.to
-mil.to
-
-// tr : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.tr
-*.tr
-!nic.tr
-// Used by government in the TRNC
-// http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.nc.tr
-gov.nc.tr
-
-// travel : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.travel
-travel
-
-// tt : http://www.nic.tt/
-tt
-co.tt
-com.tt
-org.tt
-net.tt
-biz.tt
-info.tt
-pro.tt
-int.tt
-coop.tt
-jobs.tt
-mobi.tt
-travel.tt
-museum.tt
-aero.tt
-name.tt
-gov.tt
-edu.tt
-
-// tv : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.tv
-// Not listing any 2LDs as reserved since none seem to exist in practice,
-// Wikipedia notwithstanding.
-tv
-
-// tw : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.tw
-tw
-edu.tw
-gov.tw
-mil.tw
-com.tw
-net.tw
-org.tw
-idv.tw
-game.tw
-ebiz.tw
-club.tw
-網路.tw
-組織.tw
-商業.tw
-
-// tz : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.tz
-// Submitted by registry <address@hidden> 2008-06-17
-// Updated from http://www.tznic.or.tz/index.php/domains.html 2010-10-25
-ac.tz
-co.tz
-go.tz
-mil.tz
-ne.tz
-or.tz
-sc.tz
-
-// ua : http://www.nic.net.ua/
-ua
-com.ua
-edu.ua
-gov.ua
-in.ua
-net.ua
-org.ua
-// ua geo-names
-cherkassy.ua
-chernigov.ua
-chernovtsy.ua
-ck.ua
-cn.ua
-crimea.ua
-cv.ua
-dn.ua
-dnepropetrovsk.ua
-donetsk.ua
-dp.ua
-if.ua
-ivano-frankivsk.ua
-kh.ua
-kharkov.ua
-kherson.ua
-khmelnitskiy.ua
-kiev.ua
-kirovograd.ua
-km.ua
-kr.ua
-ks.ua
-kv.ua
-lg.ua
-lugansk.ua
-lutsk.ua
-lviv.ua
-mk.ua
-nikolaev.ua
-od.ua
-odessa.ua
-pl.ua
-poltava.ua
-rovno.ua
-rv.ua
-sebastopol.ua
-sumy.ua
-te.ua
-ternopil.ua
-uzhgorod.ua
-vinnica.ua
-vn.ua
-zaporizhzhe.ua
-zp.ua
-zhitomir.ua
-zt.ua
-
-// ug : http://www.registry.co.ug/
-ug
-co.ug
-ac.ug
-sc.ug
-go.ug
-ne.ug
-or.ug
-
-// uk : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.uk
-*.uk
-*.sch.uk
-!bl.uk
-!british-library.uk
-!icnet.uk
-!jet.uk
-!mod.uk
-!nel.uk
-!nhs.uk
-!nic.uk
-!nls.uk
-!national-library-scotland.uk
-!parliament.uk
-!police.uk
-
-// us : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.us
-us
-dni.us
-fed.us
-isa.us
-kids.us
-nsn.us
-// us geographic names
-ak.us
-al.us
-ar.us
-as.us
-az.us
-ca.us
-co.us
-ct.us
-dc.us
-de.us
-fl.us
-ga.us
-gu.us
-hi.us
-ia.us
-id.us
-il.us
-in.us
-ks.us
-ky.us
-la.us
-ma.us
-md.us
-me.us
-mi.us
-mn.us
-mo.us
-ms.us
-mt.us
-nc.us
-nd.us
-ne.us
-nh.us
-nj.us
-nm.us
-nv.us
-ny.us
-oh.us
-ok.us
-or.us
-pa.us
-pr.us
-ri.us
-sc.us
-sd.us
-tn.us
-tx.us
-ut.us
-vi.us
-vt.us
-va.us
-wa.us
-wi.us
-wv.us
-wy.us
-// The registrar notes several more specific domains available in each state,
-// such as state.*.us, dst.*.us, etc., but resolution of these is somewhat
-// haphazard; in some states these domains resolve as addresses, while in
others
-// only subdomains are available, or even nothing at all. We include the
-// most common ones where it's clear that different sites are different
-// entities.
-k12.ak.us
-k12.al.us
-k12.ar.us
-k12.as.us
-k12.az.us
-k12.ca.us
-k12.co.us
-k12.ct.us
-k12.dc.us
-k12.de.us
-k12.fl.us
-k12.ga.us
-k12.gu.us
-// k12.hi.us Hawaii has a state-wide DOE login: bug 614565
-k12.ia.us
-k12.id.us
-k12.il.us
-k12.in.us
-k12.ks.us
-k12.ky.us
-k12.la.us
-k12.ma.us
-k12.md.us
-k12.me.us
-k12.mi.us
-k12.mn.us
-k12.mo.us
-k12.ms.us
-k12.mt.us
-k12.nc.us
-k12.nd.us
-k12.ne.us
-k12.nh.us
-k12.nj.us
-k12.nm.us
-k12.nv.us
-k12.ny.us
-k12.oh.us
-k12.ok.us
-k12.or.us
-k12.pa.us
-k12.pr.us
-k12.ri.us
-k12.sc.us
-k12.sd.us
-k12.tn.us
-k12.tx.us
-k12.ut.us
-k12.vi.us
-k12.vt.us
-k12.va.us
-k12.wa.us
-k12.wi.us
-k12.wv.us
-k12.wy.us
-
-cc.ak.us
-cc.al.us
-cc.ar.us
-cc.as.us
-cc.az.us
-cc.ca.us
-cc.co.us
-cc.ct.us
-cc.dc.us
-cc.de.us
-cc.fl.us
-cc.ga.us
-cc.gu.us
-cc.hi.us
-cc.ia.us
-cc.id.us
-cc.il.us
-cc.in.us
-cc.ks.us
-cc.ky.us
-cc.la.us
-cc.ma.us
-cc.md.us
-cc.me.us
-cc.mi.us
-cc.mn.us
-cc.mo.us
-cc.ms.us
-cc.mt.us
-cc.nc.us
-cc.nd.us
-cc.ne.us
-cc.nh.us
-cc.nj.us
-cc.nm.us
-cc.nv.us
-cc.ny.us
-cc.oh.us
-cc.ok.us
-cc.or.us
-cc.pa.us
-cc.pr.us
-cc.ri.us
-cc.sc.us
-cc.sd.us
-cc.tn.us
-cc.tx.us
-cc.ut.us
-cc.vi.us
-cc.vt.us
-cc.va.us
-cc.wa.us
-cc.wi.us
-cc.wv.us
-cc.wy.us
-
-lib.ak.us
-lib.al.us
-lib.ar.us
-lib.as.us
-lib.az.us
-lib.ca.us
-lib.co.us
-lib.ct.us
-lib.dc.us
-lib.de.us
-lib.fl.us
-lib.ga.us
-lib.gu.us
-lib.hi.us
-lib.ia.us
-lib.id.us
-lib.il.us
-lib.in.us
-lib.ks.us
-lib.ky.us
-lib.la.us
-lib.ma.us
-lib.md.us
-lib.me.us
-lib.mi.us
-lib.mn.us
-lib.mo.us
-lib.ms.us
-lib.mt.us
-lib.nc.us
-lib.nd.us
-lib.ne.us
-lib.nh.us
-lib.nj.us
-lib.nm.us
-lib.nv.us
-lib.ny.us
-lib.oh.us
-lib.ok.us
-lib.or.us
-lib.pa.us
-lib.pr.us
-lib.ri.us
-lib.sc.us
-lib.sd.us
-lib.tn.us
-lib.tx.us
-lib.ut.us
-lib.vi.us
-lib.vt.us
-lib.va.us
-lib.wa.us
-lib.wi.us
-lib.wv.us
-lib.wy.us
-
-// k12.ma.us contains school districts in Massachusetts. The 4LDs are
-// managed indepedently except for private (PVT), charter (CHTR) and
-// parochial (PAROCH) schools. Those are delegated dorectly to the
-// 5LD operators. <k12-ma-hostmaster _ at _ rsuc.gweep.net>
-pvt.k12.ma.us
-chtr.k12.ma.us
-paroch.k12.ma.us
-
-// uy : http://www.antel.com.uy/
-*.uy
-
-// uz : http://www.reg.uz/registerr.html
-// are there other 2nd level tlds ?
-uz
-com.uz
-co.uz
-
-// va : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.va
-va
-
-// vc : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.vc
-// Submitted by registry <address@hidden> 2008-06-13
-vc
-com.vc
-net.vc
-org.vc
-gov.vc
-mil.vc
-edu.vc
-
-// ve : http://registro.nic.ve/nicve/registro/index.html
-*.ve
-
-// vg : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.vg
-vg
-
-// vi : http://www.nic.vi/newdomainform.htm
-// http://www.nic.vi/Domain_Rules/body_domain_rules.html indicates some other
-// TLDs are "reserved", such as edu.vi and gov.vi, but doesn't actually say
they
-// are available for registration (which they do not seem to be).
-vi
-co.vi
-com.vi
-k12.vi
-net.vi
-org.vi
-
-// vn : https://www.dot.vn/vnnic/vnnic/domainregistration.jsp
-vn
-com.vn
-net.vn
-org.vn
-edu.vn
-gov.vn
-int.vn
-ac.vn
-biz.vn
-info.vn
-name.vn
-pro.vn
-health.vn
-
-// vu : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.vu
-// list of 2nd level tlds ?
-vu
-
-// ws : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.ws
-// http://samoanic.ws/index.dhtml
-ws
-com.ws
-net.ws
-org.ws
-gov.ws
-edu.ws
-
-// IDN ccTLDs
-// Please sort by ISO 3166 ccTLD, then punicode string
-// when submitting patches and follow this format:
-// <Punicode> ("<english word>" <language>) : <ISO 3166 ccTLD>
-// [optional sponsoring org]
-// <URL>
-
-// xn--mgbaam7a8h ("Emerat" Arabic) : AE
-//http://nic.ae/english/arabicdomain/rules.jsp
-امارات
-
-// xn--54b7fta0cc ("Bangla" Bangla) : BD
-বাংলা
-
-// xn--fiqs8s ("China" Chinese-Han-Simplified <.Zhonggou>) : CN
-// CNNIC
-// http://cnnic.cn/html/Dir/2005/10/11/3218.htm
-中国
-
-// xn--fiqz9s ("China" Chinese-Han-Traditional <.Zhonggou>) : CN
-// CNNIC
-// http://cnnic.cn/html/Dir/2005/10/11/3218.htm
-中國
-
-// xn--lgbbat1ad8j ("Algeria / Al Jazair" Arabic) : DZ
-الجزائر
-
-// xn--wgbh1c ("Egypt" Arabic .masr) : EG
-// http://www.dotmasr.eg/
-مصر
-
-// xn--node ("ge" Georgian (Mkhedruli)) : GE
-გე
-
-// xn--j6w193g ("Hong Kong" Chinese-Han) : HK
-// https://www2.hkirc.hk/register/rules.jsp
-香港
-
-// xn--h2brj9c ("Bharat" Devanagari) : IN
-// India
-भारत
-
-// xn--mgbbh1a71e ("Bharat" Arabic) : IN
-// India
-بھارت
-
-// xn--fpcrj9c3d ("Bharat" Telugu) : IN
-// India
-భారత్
-
-// xn--gecrj9c ("Bharat" Gujarati) : IN
-// India
-ભારત
-
-// xn--s9brj9c ("Bharat" Gurmukhi) : IN
-// India
-ਭਾਰਤ
-
-// xn--45brj9c ("Bharat" Bengali) : IN
-// India
-ভারত
-
-// xn--xkc2dl3a5ee0h ("India" Tamil) : IN
-// India
-இந்தியா
-
-// xn--mgba3a4f16a ("Iran" Persian) : IR
-ایران
-
-// xn--mgba3a4fra ("Iran" Arabic) : IR
-ايران
-
-//xn--mgbayh7gpa ("al-Ordon" Arabic) JO
-//National Information Technology Center (NITC)
-//Royal Scientific Society, Al-Jubeiha
-الاردن
-
-// xn--3e0b707e ("Republic of Korea" Hangul) : KR
-한국
-
-// xn--fzc2c9e2c ("Lanka" Sinhalese-Sinhala) : LK
-// http://nic.lk
-ලංකා
-
-// xn--xkc2al3hye2a ("Ilangai" Tamil) : LK
-// http://nic.lk
-இலங்கை
-
-// xn--mgbc0a9azcg ("Morocco / al-Maghrib" Arabic) : MA
-المغرب
-
-// xn--mgb9awbf ("Oman" Arabic) : OM
-عمان
-
-// xn--ygbi2ammx ("Falasteen" Arabic) : PS
-// The Palestinian National Internet Naming Authority (PNINA)
-// http://www.pnina.ps
-فلسطين
-
-// xn--90a3ac ("srb" Cyrillic) : RS
-срб
-
-// xn--p1ai ("rf" Russian-Cyrillic) : RU
-// http://www.cctld.ru/en/docs/rulesrf.php
-рф
-
-// xn--wgbl6a ("Qatar" Arabic) : QA
-// http://www.ict.gov.qa/
-قطر
-
-// xn--mgberp4a5d4ar ("AlSaudiah" Arabic) : SA
-// http://www.nic.net.sa/
-السعودية
-
-// xn--mgberp4a5d4a87g ("AlSaudiah" Arabic) variant : SA
-السعودیة
-
-// xn--mgbqly7c0a67fbc ("AlSaudiah" Arabic) variant : SA
-السعودیۃ
-
-// xn--mgbqly7cvafr ("AlSaudiah" Arabic) variant : SA
-السعوديه
-
-// xn--ogbpf8fl ("Syria" Arabic) : SY
-سورية
-
-// xn--mgbtf8fl ("Syria" Arabic) variant : SY
-سوريا
-
-// xn--yfro4i67o Singapore ("Singapore" Chinese-Han) : SG
-新加坡
-
-// xn--clchc0ea0b2g2a9gcd ("Singapore" Tamil) : SG
-சிங்கப்பூர்
-
-// xn--o3cw4h ("Thai" Thai) : TH
-// http://www.thnic.co.th
-ไทย
-
-// xn--pgbs0dh ("Tunis") : TN
-// http://nic.tn
-تونس
-
-// xn--kpry57d ("Taiwan" Chinese-Han-Traditional) : TW
-// http://www.twnic.net/english/dn/dn_07a.htm
-台灣
-
-// xn--kprw13d ("Taiwan" Chinese-Han-Simplified) : TW
-// http://www.twnic.net/english/dn/dn_07a.htm
-台湾
-
-// xn--nnx388a ("Taiwan") variant : TW
-臺灣
-
-// xn--j1amh ("ukr" Cyrillic) : UA
-укр
-
-// xn--mgb2ddes ("AlYemen" Arabic) : YE
-اليمن
-
-// xxx : http://icmregistry.com
-xxx
-
-// ye : http://www.y.net.ye/services/domain_name.htm
-*.ye
-
-// yu : http://www.nic.yu/pravilnik-e.html
-*.yu
-
-// za : http://www.zadna.org.za/slds.html
-*.za
-
-// zm : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.zm
-*.zm
-
-// zw : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.zw
-*.zw
-
-// DynDNS.com Dynamic DNS zones : http://www.dyndns.com/services/dns/dyndns/
-dyndns-at-home.com
-dyndns-at-work.com
-dyndns-blog.com
-dyndns-free.com
-dyndns-home.com
-dyndns-ip.com
-dyndns-mail.com
-dyndns-office.com
-dyndns-pics.com
-dyndns-remote.com
-dyndns-server.com
-dyndns-web.com
-dyndns-wiki.com
-dyndns-work.com
-dyndns.biz
-dyndns.info
-dyndns.org
-dyndns.tv
-at-band-camp.net
-ath.cx
-barrel-of-knowledge.info
-barrell-of-knowledge.info
-better-than.tv
-blogdns.com
-blogdns.net
-blogdns.org
-blogsite.org
-boldlygoingnowhere.org
-broke-it.net
-buyshouses.net
-cechire.com
-dnsalias.com
-dnsalias.net
-dnsalias.org
-dnsdojo.com
-dnsdojo.net
-dnsdojo.org
-does-it.net
-doesntexist.com
-doesntexist.org
-dontexist.com
-dontexist.net
-dontexist.org
-doomdns.com
-doomdns.org
-dvrdns.org
-dyn-o-saur.com
-dynalias.com
-dynalias.net
-dynalias.org
-dynathome.net
-dyndns.ws
-endofinternet.net
-endofinternet.org
-endoftheinternet.org
-est-a-la-maison.com
-est-a-la-masion.com
-est-le-patron.com
-est-mon-blogueur.com
-for-better.biz
-for-more.biz
-for-our.info
-for-some.biz
-for-the.biz
-forgot.her.name
-forgot.his.name
-from-ak.com
-from-al.com
-from-ar.com
-from-az.net
-from-ca.com
-from-co.net
-from-ct.com
-from-dc.com
-from-de.com
-from-fl.com
-from-ga.com
-from-hi.com
-from-ia.com
-from-id.com
-from-il.com
-from-in.com
-from-ks.com
-from-ky.com
-from-la.net
-from-ma.com
-from-md.com
-from-me.org
-from-mi.com
-from-mn.com
-from-mo.com
-from-ms.com
-from-mt.com
-from-nc.com
-from-nd.com
-from-ne.com
-from-nh.com
-from-nj.com
-from-nm.com
-from-nv.com
-from-ny.net
-from-oh.com
-from-ok.com
-from-or.com
-from-pa.com
-from-pr.com
-from-ri.com
-from-sc.com
-from-sd.com
-from-tn.com
-from-tx.com
-from-ut.com
-from-va.com
-from-vt.com
-from-wa.com
-from-wi.com
-from-wv.com
-from-wy.com
-ftpaccess.cc
-fuettertdasnetz.de
-game-host.org
-game-server.cc
-getmyip.com
-gets-it.net
-go.dyndns.org
-gotdns.com
-gotdns.org
-groks-the.info
-groks-this.info
-ham-radio-op.net
-here-for-more.info
-hobby-site.com
-hobby-site.org
-home.dyndns.org
-homedns.org
-homeftp.net
-homeftp.org
-homeip.net
-homelinux.com
-homelinux.net
-homelinux.org
-homeunix.com
-homeunix.net
-homeunix.org
-iamallama.com
-in-the-band.net
-is-a-anarchist.com
-is-a-blogger.com
-is-a-bookkeeper.com
-is-a-bruinsfan.org
-is-a-bulls-fan.com
-is-a-candidate.org
-is-a-caterer.com
-is-a-celticsfan.org
-is-a-chef.com
-is-a-chef.net
-is-a-chef.org
-is-a-conservative.com
-is-a-cpa.com
-is-a-cubicle-slave.com
-is-a-democrat.com
-is-a-designer.com
-is-a-doctor.com
-is-a-financialadvisor.com
-is-a-geek.com
-is-a-geek.net
-is-a-geek.org
-is-a-green.com
-is-a-guru.com
-is-a-hard-worker.com
-is-a-hunter.com
-is-a-knight.org
-is-a-landscaper.com
-is-a-lawyer.com
-is-a-liberal.com
-is-a-libertarian.com
-is-a-linux-user.org
-is-a-llama.com
-is-a-musician.com
-is-a-nascarfan.com
-is-a-nurse.com
-is-a-painter.com
-is-a-patsfan.org
-is-a-personaltrainer.com
-is-a-photographer.com
-is-a-player.com
-is-a-republican.com
-is-a-rockstar.com
-is-a-socialist.com
-is-a-soxfan.org
-is-a-student.com
-is-a-teacher.com
-is-a-techie.com
-is-a-therapist.com
-is-an-accountant.com
-is-an-actor.com
-is-an-actress.com
-is-an-anarchist.com
-is-an-artist.com
-is-an-engineer.com
-is-an-entertainer.com
-is-by.us
-is-certified.com
-is-found.org
-is-gone.com
-is-into-anime.com
-is-into-cars.com
-is-into-cartoons.com
-is-into-games.com
-is-leet.com
-is-lost.org
-is-not-certified.com
-is-saved.org
-is-slick.com
-is-uberleet.com
-is-very-bad.org
-is-very-evil.org
-is-very-good.org
-is-very-nice.org
-is-very-sweet.org
-is-with-theband.com
-isa-geek.com
-isa-geek.net
-isa-geek.org
-isa-hockeynut.com
-issmarterthanyou.com
-isteingeek.de
-istmein.de
-kicks-ass.net
-kicks-ass.org
-knowsitall.info
-land-4-sale.us
-lebtimnetz.de
-leitungsen.de
-likes-pie.com
-likescandy.com
-merseine.nu
-mine.nu
-misconfused.org
-mypets.ws
-myphotos.cc
-neat-url.com
-office-on-the.net
-on-the-web.tv
-podzone.net
-podzone.org
-readmyblog.org
-saves-the-whales.com
-scrapper-site.net
-scrapping.cc
-selfip.biz
-selfip.com
-selfip.info
-selfip.net
-selfip.org
-sells-for-less.com
-sells-for-u.com
-sells-it.net
-sellsyourhome.org
-servebbs.com
-servebbs.net
-servebbs.org
-serveftp.net
-serveftp.org
-servegame.org
-shacknet.nu
-simple-url.com
-space-to-rent.com
-stuff-4-sale.org
-stuff-4-sale.us
-teaches-yoga.com
-thruhere.net
-traeumtgerade.de
-webhop.biz
-webhop.info
-webhop.net
-webhop.org
-worse-than.tv
-writesthisblog.com
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- [Emacs-diffs] trunk r115978: /etc cleanup,
Eric S. Raymond <=